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UNIVERSITY  FARM 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2007  with  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


http://www.archive.org/details/chembeetsugarOOspenrich 


WORKS    OF    G.    L.    SPENCER 

PUBLISHED   BY 

JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS. 


A    Handbook  for  Cane>gugar   Manufacturers  and 
their  Chemists. 

Containing  a  review  of  processes  of  cane-sugar 
manuiacture,  practical  instruction  in  sugar-house 
control,  selected  methods  of  analysis,  reference 
tables,  etc.  Fourth  Edition,  Rewritten  and  En- 
larged. i6mo,  viii-l-331  pages,  52  figures,  morocco, 
$3.00. 

A   Handbook  for  Chemists  of  Beet-sugar  Houses 
and  5eed>culture  Farms. 

Containing  selected  methods  of  analysis,  sugar- 
house  control,  reference  tables,  etc.,  etc.  i6mo, 
x+475  pages,  74  figures,  morocco,  $3  00. 


A    HANDBOOK 

FOR 

CHEMISTS  OF  BEET-SUGAR  HOUSES 

AND 

SEED-CULTURE    FAEMS. 


CONTAINING 

SELECTED  METHODS  OF  ANALYSIS,    SUQAR-^ 

HOUSE  CONTROL,   REFERENCE 

TABLES,   ETC.,  ETC, 


BT 

GUILFORD  L.  SPENCER,  D.Sc., 

OF  THE  U.   S.  DEPARTMENT  OF  AGRICULTURE, 

Author  of  "^  Handbook  for  Sugar  Manufacturert.* 


FIRST  EDITION. 

SECOND    THOUSAUC 


NEW  YORK: 
JOHN  WILEY  &  SONS. 
London:   CHAPMAN  &  HALL,  Limited. 
1910. 


Copyright,  1897, 

BY 

G.   L.  SPENCER. 


THE  SCIENTIFIC  PRESS 

ROBERT   ORUMMOND   AND   COMPANY 

BROOKLYN.    N.   V. 


PREFACE. 


At  the  time  the  writer's  "Handbook  for  Sugar  Manu- 
facturers" was  published,  1889,  the  sugar  industry  of  the 
United  States  was  confined  almost  exclusively  to  the  cane 
sections  of  the  South.  Sorghum  was  attracting  attention 
in  the  North,  with  some  prospect  of  success  ;  the  beet  in- 
dustry was  represented  by  two  factories  in  California  and 
dismantled  factories  in  several  other  States.  The  condi- 
tions at  this  time  are  quite  different.  The  beet-sugar  in- 
dustry bids  fair  to  attain  enormous  proportions,  and  sor- 
ghum, for  the  present,  at  least,  has  given  up  the  struggle. 

Under  these  changed  conditions  there  appears  to  be  an 
opening  for  a  book  devoted  exclusively  to  the  sugar-beet, 
hence  this  work. 

In  the  preparation  of  this  book  it  is  assumed  that  the 
reader  is  familia.  •  with  many  of  the  ordinary  chemical 
manipulations,  but  the  fact  is  recognized  that  on  account 
of  the  short  manufacturing  season  many  factories  are  com- 
pelled to  employ  assistants  whose  chemical  knowledge  is 
somewhat  limited. 

In  order  to  avoid  repetition,  methods  of  sampling  are  de- 
scribed in  a  special  chapter. 

It  is  appropriate  to  mention  here  some  of  the  men 
through  whose  efforts  the  sugar-beet  has  been  successfully 
introduced  into  the  United  States.  Among  these  are  Dr. 
William  McMurtrie,  who  visited  the  beet-sugar  districts  of 
Europe  in  1880  and  published  a  very  complete  report  on 
the  industry.  Dr.  H.  W.  Wiley,  Chemist  of  the  U.  S.  De- 
partment of  Agriculture,  has  labored  incessantly  for  the 
promotion   of    sugar-manufacture  in  this  country,  and   has 

iii 


226830 


17  PREFACE. 

published  many  able  and  exhaustive  reports  upon  the  sub- 
ject. Mr.  E.  H.  Dyer,  after  repeated  disappointments 
which  would  have  discouraged  the  bravest  advocates  of  the 
sugar-beet,  succeeded  in  establishing  the  Alvarado  factory 
in  California,  the  pioneer  of  the  successful  American  beet- 
sugar  houses.  Mr.  Claus  Spreckels,  through  his  large  in- 
vestments in  the  Watsonville,  Cal.,  works,  and  the  prestige 
of  his  renown  as  a  successful  sugar-manufacturer,  has 
given  the  advocates  of  the  industry  great  encouragement. 
The  work  of  Mr.  Henry  T.  Oxnard  gave  renewed  impetus 
to  beet-sugar  manufacture,  and  has  been  of  material  value 
in  demonstrating  its  financial  success  when  backed  by 
thoroughly  scientific  and  systematic  preparations.  Many 
others  have  done  much  to  encourage  the  culture  of  the 
sugar-beet.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  Mr.  Lewis  S. 
Ware,  of  Philadelphia,  who  has  for  several  years  pub- 
lished a  journal  devoted  to  the  sugar-beet  without  other 
compensation  than  the  satisfaction  of  encouraging  a  new 
and  promising  industry. 

I  take  this  opportunity  of  acknowledging  many  refer- 
ences to  methods  and  suggestions  given  me  by  Mr.  Ervin 
E.  Ewell,  Assistant  Chemist  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  of  thanking  him  for  many  courtesies. 

G.  L.  Spencer. 

Washington,  D.  C,  1897. 


TABLE   OF   CONTENTS. 

References  are  to  pages. 


SUGAR-HOUSE  CONTROL. 
General  Remarks,  i.    The  Basis  of  Sugar-house  Control,  2. 

WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 
System  of  Weights,  3.  Net  Weight  of  the  Beets,  4.  Measurement  of 
the  Juice,  5.  Automatic  Recording  Apparatus,  5.  Various  Methods  of 
Measuring  the  Juice,  7.  Calculation  of  the  Weight  of  the  Juice,  7.  Auto- 
matic Determination  of  the  Weight  of  the  Juice,  8.  Measurement  and 
Weight  of  the  Sirup,  9.  Measurement  and  Weight  of  the  First  Massecuite, 
II.  Measurement  and  Weight  of  the  Second  Massecuite,  etc.,  12.  Sugar 
Weights,  13. 

ESTIMATION  OF  LOSSES  OF  SUCROSE. 

Division  of  the  Season  into   Periods,  13.     Loss  in  the  Exhausted  Cos. 

settes,  15.    Loss  in  the-'Waste- water,  16.     Estimation  of  the  Losses  in  the 

Diffusion,  by  Difference,  17.     Loss  in  the  Filter  P«ess-cake,  18.     Loss  in 

the  Evaporation  to  Sirup,  18.     Loss  in  the  Vacuum  pan,  18. 

SUGAR  ANALYSIS.  OPTICAL  METHODS. 
The  Polariscope,  20.  Half-shadow  Polariscope,  20.  Triple-field  Polari- 
scope,  23.  Laurent  Polariscope,  2^.  ^ransition-tint  Polariscope,  Soleil- 
Ventzke-Scheibler,  26.  General  Remaoks  on  Polariscopes,  27.  Manip- 
ulation of  a  Polariscope,  27.  The  Polariscopic  Scale,  29.  Reading  thff 
Polariscopic  Scale,  30.  Preparation  of  Solutions  for  Polarization,  31. 
Adjustment  of  the  Polariscope,  32.  Notes  on  Polariscopic  Work,  33. 
Error  due  to  the  Volume  of  the  Lead  Precipitate,  35.  Scheibler's  Method 
of  Double  Dilution,  37.  Sach's  Method  of  determining  the  Volume  of  the 
Lead  Precipitate,  38.  Influence  of  Subacetate  of  Lead  and  other  Sub- 
stances upon  the  Optically  Active  Non-sugars,  38, 

SUGAR  ANALYSIS.    CHEMICAL  METHODS. 
Determination  of  Sucrose  by  Alkaline  Copper  Solution,  41.     Determina- 
tion of  Sucrose  in  the  Presence  of  Reducing  Sugars,  42. 

SAMPLING  AND   AVERAGING. 

General  Remarks  on  Sampling  and  Averaging,  43.     Sampling  Beets  in 

the  Field,  44.     Subsampling  of   Beets  in  Fixing  the  Purchase-price,  45. 

Sampling  Beets  at  the   Diffusion-battery,  47.      Sampling  the   Fresh  Cos- 

8tfttes,  48.      Sampling   the   Exhausted  Cossettes,   49.      Sampling  Waste- 


VI  TABLE    OF    CONTENTS. 

waters,  48.  Sampling  Dififusion-juice,  49,  Sampling  Filter  Press-cake, 
49.  Sampling  Sirups,  49.  Preservation  of  Samples,  49.  Automatic 
Sampling  Juices,  50.    Sampling  Sugars,  54. 

DENSITY  DETERMINATIONS.    APPARATUS   AND  METHODS. 

Notes  on  Density,  55.  Brix  and  Baume  Scales,  55  Automatic  Appa 
ratus  for  the  Determination  of  the  Density  of  the  Juice,  55.  Hydrometers 
or  Spindles,  56.     The  Westphal  Balance,  58.     Pyknometers,  60. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  BEET. 
The  Direct  Analysis,  62.  Scheibler's  Extraction  Method,  92.  Stam- 
mer's Alcoholic  Digestion  Method,  64.  Pellet's  Aqueous  Method,  Hot 
Digestion,  65.  Pellet's  Instantaneous  Aqueous  Diffusion  Method,  67. 
Determination  of  the  Reducing  Sugar,  68.  Notes  on  the  Direct  Methods 
of  Analysis,  69.  Rasps  and  Mills  for  the  Reduction  of  the  Beet,  69. 
Indirect  Analysis,  71. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  JUICE. 
Determination  of  the  Density,  74.  Special  Pipette  for  Measurements  in 
(he  Sucrose  Determiflations,  74.  General  Method  for  Sucrose,  75.  Notes 
on  the  Clarification  of  Samples  for  Polarization,  77.  Remarks  on  th2 
Reducing  Sugars  in  Beet  Products,  78.  Gravimetric  Determination  o. 
Reducing  Sugars,  78.  Volumetric  Determination  of  Reducing  Sugars,  84. 
Notes  on  the  Determination  of  Reducing  Sugars,  go.  Determination  of 
the  Total  Nitrogen,  Albuminoids,  92.  Determinatibn  of  the  Total  Solids, 
P3.  Acidity,  95.  Analysis  of  Carbonated  juice,  95.  Alkalinity,  96. 
Rapid  Methods  of  Moderate  Accuracy  for  the  Alkalinity,  96.  Methods 
(or  the  Total  Calcium,  99.  Free  and  Combined  Lime  and  Alkalinity  due 
io  Caustic  Alkalis,  Pellet's  Method,  loi. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SIRUP. 
Analysis  of  the  Sirup,  102, 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  MASSECUITES  AND  MOLASSES. 

Determination  of  the  Density,  102.  Density  by  Dilution  and  Spindling, 
103.  Total  Solids  and  Moisture  by  Drying,  103.  Total  Solids  and 
Coefficient  of  Purity,  Weisberg's  Method,  104.  Determination  of  Sucrose 
»nd  Raffinose,  Creydt's  Formula,  106.  Sucrose  and  Raffinose,  Lindet's 
Method,  107.  Sucrose  and  Raffinose  in  the  Presence  of  Reducing  Sugar, 
no.  Sucrose  in  the  Presence  of  Reducing  Sugar,  Clerget's  Method,  no. 
Determinations  to  be  made  in  the  Analysis  of  Massecuites  and  Molasses. 
tii.  Scheme  for  the  Analysis  of  Massecuites  and  Molasses,  in.  Alkalinity 
of  Massecuites  and  Molasses,  112.  Estimation  of  the  Proportion  of  Crystal- 
lized Sugar,  112.    Notes  on  the  Estimation  of  Crystallized  Sugar,  117. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SUGARS. 

Analysis  of  Sugars,  118,  Notes  on  the  Analysis  of  Sugars,  Massecuites, 
»nd  Molasses,  119. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS.  VU 

ANALYSIS  OF  FILTER   PRESS-CAKE. 
Determination  of  the  Moisture,   120.    Total   Sucrose,    120.    Free  and 
Combined  Sucrose,  122. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  RESIDUES  FROM  THE  MECHANICAL 

FILTERS. 
Determination  of  the  Moisture  and  Sucrose,  122. 

ANALYSIS   OF  THE  WASH   AND  WASTE  WATERS. 
Determination  of  the  Sucrose,  123. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE   EXHAUSTED  COSSETTES. 
Indirect  Method  for  Sucrose,  124. 

DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  COEFFICIENTS  AND  TERMS  USED 

IN   SUGAR  ANALYSIS. 

Coefficient  of  Purity,  True  and  Apparent,  126.     Glucose  Coefficient,  or 

Glucose  per   100  Sucrose,   126.      Saline   Coefficient,   126.      Proportional 

Value,  127.     Apparent  Dilution,  127.     Actual  Dilution,  127.    Coefficient  o( 

Organic  Matter,  127. 

DETERMINATION  OF  THE  MARC. 
Determination  of  the  Marc,  128. 

VISCOSITY  OF  SUGAR-HOUSE  PRODUCTS. 
Viscosity  of  Sirups,  etc.,  130. 

CONTROL  OF  THE  OSMOSIS   PROCESS. 
Analytical  Work,  135.  "  J 

ANALYSIS  OF  SACCHARATES. 
Saccharates,  137.     Determination  of  the  Sucrose,  Lime,  Strontium,  and 
Barium,  137.     Apparent  and  True  Coefficients  of  Purity,  138.    Analysis  of 
Mother  Liquors  and  Wash-waters,  138. 

EXAMINATION   OF   BONE-BLACK. 
Limited  Use  of  Bone-black  in  Sugar  Factories,  139,     Revivification,  139. 
Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Bone-black,  139.     Sulphide  of  Calcium,  140. 
Moisture,  140.    Decolorizing  Power  of  the  Bone-black,  140.     Determina- 
tion of  the  Principal  Constituents,  141. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE   LIME-KILN  AND  CHIMNEY-GASES. 
Analysis  of  the  Gas  from  the  Lime-kiln,  142.     Simple  Apparatus  for 
Determining  the  Carbonic  Acid,  146^    Analysis  of  the  Chimney-gases,  147. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LIMESTONE. 
Preparation  of  the  Sample,  148.  Determination  of  the  Moisture,  148. 
Sand,  Clay,  and  Organic  Matter,  148.  Soluble  Silica,  148.  Total  Silica, 
149.  Iron  and  Alumina,  150.  Calcium,  151.  Magnesium,  152.  Carbonic 
Acid,  153.  Sulphuric  Acid,  156.  Notes  on  the  Analysis  of  Limestone, 
»56. 


Vlli  TABLE  OP  CONTENTS. 

ANALYSIS  OF  LIME. 
Determination  of  the  Calcium  Oxide,  15Q.    Unburned  and  Slaked  Lime 
159,    Calcium  Oxide,  Degener-Lunge  Method,  159.     Complete  Analysis 
160. 

ANALYSIS  OF  SULPHUR. 

Estimation  of  Impurities,  161. 

ANALYSIS  OF  COKE. 
Preparation  of  the  Sample,   162.    Determination  of  the  Moisture,  162. 
Ash,  162.    Sulphur,  162. 

LUBRICATING  OILS. 
Tests  applied  to  Lubricating  Oils,   164.      Cold   Test,   164.      Viscosity 
Test,  164.    Tests  for  Acidity  and  Alkalinity,  165.    Purity  Tests,  165. 

ANALYSIS  AND   PURIFICATION   OF  WATER. 
Characteristics  of  Suitable  Water,  167.     Analysis,  167.     Purification,  171. 

SEED-SELECTION. 
General  Remarks,  174.  Distribution  of  the  Sugar  in  the  Beet,  177. 
Methods  of  removing  the  Sample  for  Analysis,  177.  Analysis  of  the 
Sample,  179.  Pellet's  Continuous  Tube  for  Polarizations,  183.  Polari- 
scope  with  Enlarged  Scale,  184.  Pellet's  Estimate  of  Laboratory  Appa- 
ratus and  Personnel  required  for  a  Seed-farm,  185.  Chemical  Method  for 
the  Analysis  of  Beet-mothers,  187. 

SEED-TESTING. 
Beet-seed,  190.     Sampling,  190.     Moisture,  191.    Proportion  of  Clean 
Seed,  t9t.    Number  of  Seeds  per  Pound  or  Kilogram,  191.    Germination 
Tests,  192.    Characteristics  of  Good  Seed,  195. 

MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES. 
•  Cobaltous  Nitrate  Test  for  Sucrose,  197.  Test  for  Sucrose,  using  o- 
Napthol,  197.  Nitrous  Oxide  set  free  in  Boiling  Sugar,  198.  The  Precipi- 
tate formed  in  heating  Diffusion-juice,  i<^8.  Spontaneous  Combustion  of 
Molasses,  198.  Calorific  Value  of  Molasses,  198.  Fermentation,  199. 
Melassigenic  Salts,  201.  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Sugar-beet,  201. 
List  of  Reagents  suggested  for  the  Treatment  of  Beet-juice,  203. 

SUGAR-HOUSE   NOTES. 
Diffusion,  207.    "  Gray  "  Juice,  208.     Carbonatation,  208.     Sulphuring, 
2IO.    Filter-pressing,  Difficulties,  210.      Lime-kiln,  211.     Granulation  of 
the  Sugar  in  the  Vacuum-pan,  214.    Second  and  Third  Massecuites,  215. 
Gray  Sugar,  215. 

SPECIAL   REAGENTS. 
Alkaline  Copper  Solutions,  216.    Normal  Solutions,  217.     Pure  Sugar, 

222.  Subacetate  of  Lead,  223.     Bone-black,  223,    Hydrate  of  Alumina, 

223.  Indicators  of  Acidity  and  Alkalinity,  224. 

REFERENCE  TABLES,  226. 

BLANK  FORMS  FOR  USE  IN  SUGAR-HOUSE  WORK,  301. 


LIST   OF   ILLUSTRATIONS. 


FIGURE  PAGE 

1.  Sugar-beet,  showing  Method  of  Topping. 4 

2.  Automatic  Recording  Apparatus,  Horsin-Ddon 6 

3.  Automatic  Scale,  Baldwin 8 

4.  Diagrams  showing  Operation  of  Baldwin's  Scale 9 

5.  Apparatus  for  determining  the  Weight  of  a  Unit  Volume  of 

Massecuite  ix 

6.  Half-shadow  Polariscope 21 

7.  Double  Compensating  (Shadow)  Polariscope —  22 

8.  Triple-field  Polariscope 23 

9.  Diagram  illustrating  Triple-field  Polariscope 24 

10.  Laurent  Polariscope 25 

11.  White-light  Attachment  for  Laurent  Polariscope 25 

12.  Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler  Polariscope 26 

13.  Lamp  for  Polariscopic  Work 29 

14.  Polariscopic  Scale 30 

15.  Weighing  Capsule v   I- j"  3* 

i6.     Filtering  Apparatus /T 32 

17.  Control-tube 35 

18.  Diagram  showing  Method  of  Removing  a  Sample  from  a  Beet.  46 

19.  Boring-rasp 46 

20.  Details  of  Boring-rasp 46 

21.  Automatic  Sampler.  Coombs 51 

22.  Automatic  Sampler,  Horsin-Ddon 53 

23.  Sugar-trier .   54 

24.  Automatic  Apparatus  for  Density  Determinations 56 

25.  Brix  Hydrometer     57 

26.  Method  of  reading  a  Hydrometer 57 

27.  Westphal  Balance 59 

28.  Pykaometer 60 

29.  Soxhlet-Sickel  Extraction  Apparatus  63 

30.  Knorr's  Extraction-tube ; 63 

31.  Pellet  and  Lomont  Rasp,  side  view..     65 

32.  Pellet  and  Lomont  Rasp,  end  view '. 65 

33.  Pelle',  and  Lomont  Rasp,  view  from  above 66 

34.  Section,  showing  Method  of  Sampling  a  Sugar-beet 66 

35.  Sugar- flask 66 

36.  Cylindro-divider 70 

ix 


LIST  OF   ILLUSTRATIOifS. 


FIGURE  PACK 

37.  Neveu  and  Aubin^s  Rasp 71 

38.  Pulp-press 7a 

39.  Special  Pipette  for  Use  in  Sucrose  Determinations 75 

40.  Filtering-tube 7^ 

41.  Apparatus  for  controlling  the  Current  in  Electrolytic  Depo- 

sitions     80 

42.  Automatic  Zero  Burette ..   85 

43.  Wiley  and  Knorr  Filter-tubes 86 

44.  Muffle  for  incinerating  Sugars 91 

45.  Muffle  for  incinerating  Sugars 91 

46.  Muffle  for  incinerating  Sugars 91 

47.  Vacuum  Drying-oven 94 

48.  Vivien's  Tube  for  Control  Analyses  in  the  Carbonatation 98 

49.  Vivien's  Apparatus  for  Crystallized  Sugar  Determination 114 

50.  Kracz  Apparatus  for  Crystallized  Sugar  Determination 114 

51.  Pellet's  Apparatus  for  Marc  Determinations     129 

52.  Doolittle's  Viscosimeter 131 

53.  Engler's  Viscosimeter 133 

54.  Orsat's  Apparatus  for  Gas  Analysis. 143 

55.  Knorr's  Carbonic  Acid  Apparatus 154 

56.  Schroetter's  Alkalimeter 155 

57.  Vilmorin's  improved  White  Beet 176 

58.  Kleinwanzlebener  Beet 176 

59.  Diagram  showing  the  Distribution  of  the  Sugar  in  the  Beet 177 

60.  Diagram  showing  the  Distribution  of  the  Sugar  in  the  Beet 177 

61.  Diagram  showing  the  Distribution  of  the  Sugar  in  the  Beet....   177 

62.  Lindeboom's  Sound , 178 

63.  Details  of  Boring-rasp 179 

64.  Hanriot's  Apparatus 180 

65.  Sach's-Le  Docte  Apparatus  for  Determination  of  the  Sucrose  in 

the  Beet 181 

66.  Automatic  Pipette 182 

67.  Pellet's  continuous  Polariscope-tube 183 

68.  Polariscope  for  use  in  Seed  Selection 185 

69.  Enlarged  Scale  for  a  Polariscope 186 

70.  Filtering  Apparatus 186 

71.  Numbered  Clamp... <     186 

72.  Antomatic  Pipette 189 

73.  Seed  Sampling-disk 190 

74.  Apparatus  for  Seed-testing • • i95 


HANDBOOK 

FOR 

SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 


SUGAR-HOUSE   CONTROL. 

1.  General  Remarks.— The  control  of  sugar-house 
work  requires  the  analysis  of  the  various  products  at  each 
stage  of  the  manufacture,  and  the  tabulation  of  the  results. 
From  the  data  supplied  by  the  analyses,  the  weights  and 
measures  of  the  raw  material  and  the  products,  the  chemist 
endeavors  to  trace  the  l^ses.  The  sugar  received  by  the 
factory,  in  the  beets,  is  clrarged  on  one  side  of  the  account, 
and  that  in  the  products  and  known  losses  is  credited 
on  the  other  side.  The  two  sides  of  this  account  never 
balance  owing  to  small  unavoidable  inaccuracies  in  methods, 
and  to  losses  which  cannot  be  located  or  measured. 

The  question  of  the  detection,  location,  and  estimation  of 
the  losses  of  sugar  in  the  processes  of  the  manufacture  is 
often  very  complicated,  and  its  solution  requires  the  highest 
degree  of  skill  on  the  part  of  the  chemist.  As  the  processes 
become  more  complicated  through  efforts  to  extract  the 
uttermost  grain  of  sugar  from  the  beet,  the  difficulties 
which  beset  the  chemist  increase. 

In  many  houses  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  losses  quan- 
titatively, through  lack  of  tank-room,  etc. 

The  slightest  analytical  error  will  sometimes  result  in 
figures  of  negative  value  and  necessitate  their  rejection. 
The  so-called  "losses  fror.i  unknown  sou^ce^s,"  "undeter- 
minable losses,"  and."  mechanical  losses,'  are  probably  in 


2  HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

many  cases   the  result   of  unavoidable  errors   in  weights 
and  measures  or  in  sampling  and  analysis. 

.  If  an  apparent  loss  be  too  large  to  be  attributable  to  a 
reasonable  allowance  for  error,  it  is  well  to  view  its  exist- 
ence with  doubt,  until  it  is  verified  by  repeated  observations. 

The  work  of  the  chemist  is  further  complicated  in  sugar- 
houses  which  treat  the  molasses  by  a  saccharate  process,  es- 
pecially a  lime  process  in  which  the  saccharate  is  used  in 
liming  the  juice. 

The  adjustment  of  the  analytical  instruments  should  be 
frequently  verified.  The  calibration  of  graduated  ware 
should  be  checked.     {See  pages  231  and  250.) 

The  chemical  control  of  a  sugar-house  does  not  end  with 
the  tracing  and  location  of  losses;  it  is  also  necessary  to 
control  the  processes  of  manufacture.  Each  product  should 
be  studied,  and  the  influence  of  each  of  the  processes  on 
the  yield  of  the  sugar  noted.  Slight  modifications  in  the 
treatment  of  the  material  at  various  stages  of  the  manu- 
facture are  often  suggested  by  the  work  of  the  chemist,  and 
result  in  an  increased  yield  of  sugar. 

Analytical  data  should  be  promptly  obtained  and  tabu- 
lated, also  all  manufacturing  data.  Blank  forms  are  given 
in  pages  302  et  seq.  for  permanent  records  for  the  chemist's 
use.  The  comparison  of  the  data  obtained  in  one  period 
with  those  of  another  will  always  raise  the  questions,  "Why 
is  the  yield  of  sugar  smaller  in  one  period  than  in  the 
other  ?  "  and  "  Why  are  the  losses  greater  or  less  this  week 
than  last  ?" 

The  writer  has  always  made  it  a  practice,  in  the  control 
of  sugar-house  work,  to  divide  the  season  into  periods  of 
one  week  each,  and  estimate  the  yield  and  losses,  so  far  as 
practicable,  in  each.     {See  14.) 

2.  The  Basis  of  Sugar-house  Control. —  It  is 
evident  that  sugar-house  control  must  begin  at  a  stage 
where  the  amount  of  sugar  entering  the  factory  can  be 
accurately  determined.  In  order  to  include  the  diffusion 
it  must  begin  with  the  weight  of  the  beets.  The  weight  of 
the  beets  cannot  be  deduced  with  accuracy  from  the  aver- 
age volume  of  a- definite  tyeiglji  of  cuttings  as  measured  in 
the  diffusers. 


SUGAR-HOUSE    CONTROL.  6 

The  objections  to  the  use  of  the  net  weight  as  determined 
by  the  deduction  of  the  estimated  tare  from  the  gross  weight 
are  (i)  the  element  of  uncertainty  due  to  an  estimate,  and 
(2)  that  portions  of  the  beet,  for  which  a  deduction  is  made 
in  the  tare,  reach  the  diffusion-battery. 

In  those  countries  where  the  clean  beets  are  weighed  as 
they  enter  the  cutters,  by  the  government  officials,  the  con- 
trol should  begin  with  the  cuttings.  This  affords  the  only 
strictly  reliable  method  of  checking  the  work  of  the  diffusion- 
battery,  since  the  losses  at  this  stage  must  be  the  difference 
between  the  weight  of  sucrose  in  the  beets,  as  determined 
by  analysis  of  the  cuttings,  and  that  in  the  diffusion- 
juice. 

In  the  absence  of  the  weights  of  the  beets  as  indicated 
above,  the  control  of  the  general  work  of  the  factory  must 
begin  with  the  weight  of  the  diffusion-juice. 

It  is  very  probable  that  the  so-called  "losses  from  un- 
known sources,"  "mechanical  losses,"  and  "undetermined 
losses"  are  largely  due  to  errors  in  weights  and  measures, 
and  inaccuracies  in  sampMng  and  analysis,  rather  than  to 
actual  losses.  f 

This  suggests  that  all  instruments  and  graduated  ware  be 
carefully  checked,  and  that  weights  of  the  raw  material  be 
adopted,  instead  of  gauging,  where  practicable. 

Claassen,*  a  prominent  German  authority,  recommends  the 
automatic  scale  constructed  by  Reuther  &  Reisert,  Hennef, 
Germany,  for  weighing  the  beets  immediately  before  they 
are  sliced.     He  states  that  this  scale  is  prefectly  reliable. 

The  eminent  French  sugar  engineer  Charles  Gallois  has 
devised  an  apparatus  which  insures  accurate  weights.  This 
apparatus  is  so  arranged  that  the  small  car  in  which  the 
roots  are  weighed  cannot  leave  the  scale  unless  it  contain 
the  correct  weight  of  beets. 

WEIGHTS   AND    MEASURES. 

3.  System  of  Weights.— In  view  of  the  fact  that  all 
chemists  employ  the  metric  system  in  their  analvtical  work, 

1  Zeit.  RUbenzucker-Industrte,  1895,  1084. 


4  HAi^DBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

and  that  manufacturers  in  this  country  still  adhere  to  the 
English,  it  is  necessary  in  a  work  of  this  kind  to  use  both 
systems  of  weights  and  measures. 

4.  Net  Weight  of  the  Beets.  —  The  beets  as  re- 
ceived at  the  factory  have  been  topped  with  more  or  less 
care,  and  have  variable  quantities  of  earth  and  pebbles  ad- 
hering to  them.  These  conditions  necessitate  the  careful 
determination  of  an  allowance  for  tare. 

As  nearly  an  average  sample  of  the  roots  as  is  practicable 
is  selected.  This  sample  should  consist  of  as  many  beets 
as  can  be  conveniently  taken,  the  larger  the  number  the 


Fig.  I. 

better.     This  number  may  afterwards  be  reduced  by  sub- 
sampling  by  the  method  of  "  quartering." 

Thq  roots  are  weighed,  then  thoroughly  washed,  using  a 
brush  to  remove  adhering  soil  and  rootlets,  and  are  then 
dried.  A  cloth  may  be  used  for  drying  them,  but  where 
many  samples  are  to  be  examined  it  is  usually  more  con- 
venient to  dry  the  roots  by  exposure  to  a  free  circulation  of 
the  air  for  a  short  time. 


SUGAR-nOUSE   CONTROL.  9 

The  next  operation  is  the  removal  of  the  neck  or  crown, 
i.e.,  that  portion  of  the  beet  from  just  below  the  lowest  leaf- 
bud.     The  cut  should  be  made  at  the  line  shown  in  Fig.  i. 

The  roots  are  again  weighed,  the  difference  between 
this  weight  and  the  first  being  recorded  as  the  tare.  The 
number  of  beets  included  in  the  sample  and  their  average 
weight  should  also  be  recorded. 

The  beets,  which  have  been  employed  in  determining  the 
deduction  for  tare,  conveniently  serve  as  a  sample  for  analy- 
sis when  the  roots  are  purchased  upon  a  basis  of  their 
sugar  content.  These  roots,  however,  would  not  be  a 
satisfactory  average  for  calculating  the  sugar  entering  the 
factory. 

5.  Measurement  of  the  Juice.— At  the  present 
time,  the  diffusion  process  has  replaced  all  others  in  the  ex- 
traction of  the  juice  from  the  beet.  This  process  requires 
that  definite  volumes  of  juice  be  drawn  from  the  battery  for 
definite  quantities  of  beets. 

The  juice  is  drawn  into  a  measuring-tank  which  is  alter- 
nately filled  and  emptied.  If  this  measurement  be  made 
with  accuracy \nd  reliable  samples  of  the  juice  be  drawn,  a 
basis  is  supplitd  for  subsequent  control  work.  Unfortu- 
nately this  measurement  as  usually  made  is  only  an  approx- 
imation. Errors  are  introduced  through  variations  in  the 
temperature  of  the  juice  and  the  difficulty  of  closing  the 
inlet-valve  at  the  proper  instant.  Hence  special  apparatus 
is  essential  to  accurate  measurement.  This  apparatus 
should  be  so  arranged  that  it  is  wholly  or  partly  automatic 
in  its  functions. 

Whatever  the  system  of  tank  measurements,  it  is  essen- 
tial that  the  measuring-tank  be  carefully  calibrated  by 
means  of  a  known  volume  of  water  rather  than  by  calcula- 
tion. A  slight  error  in  the  calibration  is  multiplied  many 
times  before  the  end  of  the  manufacturing  season. 

6.  Measurement  oftlie  Juice— Automatic  Re- 
cording" Apparatus. — The  errors  mentioned  above 
may  be  reduced  to  a  minimum  by  a  careful  supervision  of 
the  battery  temperatures,  the  use  of  automatic  recording 
apparatus,  and  overflow  pipes. 

The  apparatus   illustrated   in   Fig.  2,  the   invention  of 


6 


HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


Horsin-D6on,  is  largely  used  in  France.  It  consists  essen- 
tially of  a  paper-covered  cylinder  revolved  by  clockwork. 
A  float  in  the  measuring-tank  is  connected,  by  means  of  a 
wire  or  chain,  with  a  drum  which  revolves  when  the  float 
rises  or  falls  :  on  the  shaft  of  the  drum  is  a  pinion  which 
in  revolving  engages  a  rack  ;  this  latter  in  turn  is  attached 
to  a  small  arm  which  carries  a  pen.  When  the  juice  enters 
the  tank  the  float  lifts,  revolves  the  drum,  and  by  means  of 
the  motion  transmitted  through  the  rack  and  pinion  the 
pencil  traces  a  line  on  the  paper-covered  cylinder.  The 
paper  is  divided  vertically  into  12  parts,  corresponding  to  the 


Fig.  2. 

hours.  These  parts  are  subdivided  into  5-minute  spacca. 
The  cylinder  makes  one  revolution  every  twelve  hours. 
The  sheet  of  paper  is  ruled  horizontally  into  spaces  of  such 
width  that  each  represents  a  certain  volume  of  juice.  It  is 
evident  from  an  inspection  of  the  figure  that  the  apparatus 
will  record  irregularities  in  the  operation  of  the  diffusion- 
battery.  As  the  lines  traced  by  the  pen  bear  an  invariable 
ratio  to  the  depth  of  the  tank,  the  volume  of  the  juice  may 
be  deduced  from  the  height  of  the  "peak"  of  the  curve 
above  the  base-line.    Bell  signals,  also  operated  by  the  float. 


SUGAR-HOUSE   CONTROL.  7 

warn  the  battery-man  when  the  tank  is  filled  nearly  to  the 
required  point,  or  is  almost  empty.  A  counter  records 
the  number  of  times  the  tank  has  been  filled. 

It  is  advisable  to  provide  an  overflow-pipe,  to  prevent 
drawing  more  than  a  certain  volume  of  juice. 

Similar  apparatus,  constructed  by  Rassmus,  is  employed 
in  German  sugar-houses. 

The  automatic  recording  apparatus  is  often  of  great  value 
in  locating  irregularities  which  may  lead  to  losses. 

7.  Various  Methods  of  Measuring  the  Juice. 
—  Probably  the  most  reliable  method  of  measuring  the 
juice  is  that  adopted  by  the  Belgian  Government  in  connec- 
tion with  the  excise.  This  method  consists  essentially  of 
a  tank  provided  with  an  adjustable  overflow-pipe,  and  a 
device  for  returning  the  overflow  liquor,  the  volume  of 
which  is  very  small,  to  the  battery.  The  inlet  and  outlet 
are  at  the  bottom  of  the  tank. 

Several  automatic  measuring-tanks,  more  or  less  reliable, 
have  been  devised.  The  valves  in  the  better  class  of  these 
are  operated  by^ydraulic,  steam,  or  air  pressure. 

8.  Calcuhimon  of  the  Weight  of  the  Juice 
from  its  Volume. — The  reference  tables  given  in  this 
book,  except  when  otherwise  stated,  are  referred  to  a  tem- 
perature of  17^°  C.  This  number  is  that  adopted  in  the 
German  sugar-houses  and  in  the  cane-sugar  factories  of 
this  country  as  a  standard.  In  view  of  these  facts  it  is 
convenient  to  refer  all  sugar-house  measurements  to  this 
temperature.  The  observed  density  of  the  juice  should 
also  be  reduced  to  17^°  C. 

The  mean  temperature  of  the  juice  at  the  time  of  meas- 
urement should  be  noted  and  the  volume  corrected  for 
temperature.  The  juice  expands  practically  at  the  same 
rate  as  a  water-solution  of  sugar,  hence  Gerlach's  table  may  be 
used  in  figuring  the  corrected  volume  (23  j). 

The  weight  of  a  cubic  foot  of  pure  water  at  17^°  C. 
(63^°  F.)  is  62.348  pounds;  the  weight  of  one  U.  S.  gallon 
of  water  (231  cu.  in.)  at  this  temperature  is  8.335  pounds. 
These  numbers,  multiplied  by  the  density  of  the  juice,  give 
respectively  the  weight  of  one  cubic  foot  and  of  one  gallon 
of  juice.   The  calculations  are  facilitated  by  the  table258. 


8 


HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


9.  Automatic  Determination  of  the  Weight 
of  the  «Tuice.— It  is  preferable  to  determine  the  weight 
of  the  juice  by  actual  weighing  when  practicable.  The 
automatic  scale  shown  in  Fig.  3  and  in  the  diagrams  (i,  2, 


Fig.  3. 

3,  and  4),  Fig.  4,  is  the  invention  of  John  Paul  Baldwin,  and 
was  devised  especially  for  sugar-house  purposes. 

The  machine  consists  essentially  of  a  revolving  drum 
mounted  upon  a  suitable  scale.  The  liquid  enters  through 
the  central  pipe  and  flows  into  one  of  the  compartments  of 
the  drum.  When  the  weight  of  liquid  for  which  the  scale 
is  set  has  entered  the  compartment,  the  liquid  is  automat- 
ically diverted   to    the   s^ond   compartment,   the   l«ad  io 


SUGAR-HOUSE  CONTROL. 


which  soon  revolves  the  drum  so  that  the  weighed  liquid 
runs  into  the  receiver  beneath.  The  drum  continues  to  re- 
volve until  it  assumes  its  original  position. 


1 

HJ 

^ 

< 

^\nLLm^^^^ 

\ 

^^ 

'  s 

Ci 

t\ 

/ 

3 

^ 

^ 

f 

*y        1  11   r 

K 

« 

H 

\                    ^^j^^:^^^:^  —  '—j 

1 

SJ 

T 

Fig.  4. 

A  counter  records  the  number  of  weighings.  A  cup 
removes  a  small  sample  of  the  liquid  from  each  load  and 
stores  it  in  a  bottle,  as  shown  in  Fig.  3. 

10.  Measurement  and  Weight  of  the  Sirup.— 

The  sirup  is  pumped  from  the  multiple-effect  evaporator  to 
storage-tanks.  It  is  not  always  easy  to  obtain  accurate 
measurements  of  the  sirup  in  these  tanks.  Rectangular 
tanks  should  be  thoroughly  stayed  with  rods.  In  case  the 
tanks  are  bulged  or  uneven,  it  may  be  necessary  to  calibrate 
them  by  running  in  a  measured  volume  of  water.  If  the 
tanks  are  of  uniform  sectional  area  from  top  to  bottom, 
they  may  be  fitted  with  gauge-glasses  similar  to  the  water- 


10         HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOtJSE  CHEMISTS. 

gauges  on  a  steam-boiler,  except  that  the  tubes  should  be 
of  larger  diameter,  and  may  be  graduated  to  any  convenient 
scale.  A  stop-cock  should  be  provided  to  cut  off  communi- 
cation with  the  tank,  and  a  second  cock  to  drain  the  sirup 
into  a  sample-bottle.  The  contents  of  the  tank  should  be 
thoroughly  mixed  before  admitting  sirup  to  the  tube.  The 
sirup  so  obtained  constitutes  the  chemist's  sample.  An 
electric  signal-bell  should  be  arranged  to  notify  the  work- 
man in  charge  of  the  tanks  and  the  chemist  each  time  a 
tank  is  filled.  The  reading  on  the  scale  is  taken,  the  tem- 
perature noted,  and  the  contents  of  the  tube  stored  for 
analysis.  The  density  and  volume  supply  the  data  for  cal- 
culating the  weight  of  the  sirup.  A  correction  must  be 
made  to  reduce  the  observed  volume  of  the  sirup  to  the 
standard  conditions  stated  in  8.  The  calculations  are  facil- 
itated by  the  table  258. 

The  coefficient  of  expansion  of  an  average  sample  of  the 
sirup  should  be  determined  by  experiment.  This  coefficient 
approximates  that  of  a  pure  sugar  solution  (236),  which  for 
most  purposes  is  sufficiently  near  the  truth. 

In  sugar-houses  which  make  a  practice  of  drawing  the 
sirup  into  the  vacuum-pan  from  the  tank  into  which  the 
liquor  is  being  pumped  from  the  multiple-effect,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  provide  special  measuring  and  sampling  apparatus. 

An  automatic  measuring  tank,  such  as  is  sometimes  used 
in  connection  with  diffusion-batteries,  can  readily  be  adapted 
for  the  purpose.  The  measuring-tank  proper  is  fitted  with 
inlet  and  outlet  valves  operated  by  hydraulic  or  steam 
pressure.  The  valves  are  controlled  by  means  of  a  float 
acting  upon  a  suitable  lever,  which  in  turn  opens  and  closes 
the  water  or  steam  ports.  A  small  storage-tank  is  also 
provided,  the  outlet  from  which  is  operated  by  a  float. 
This  tank  must  be  large  enough  to  allow  ample  time  for 
the  drainage  of  the  measuring-tank.  The  sirup  delivery- 
pipes  should  dip  below  the  surface  of  the  liquor. 

The  sirup  may  also  be  weighed  directly  by  means  of  an 
automatic  scale  (9).  A  scale  used  for  this  purpose  requires 
careful  inspection  at  frequent  intervals,  especially  when 
weighing  very  dense  sirups. 

These  methods  of  ascertaining  the  weight  of  the  sirup 


SUGAR-HOUSE  CONTROL. 


11 


complicate  the  sampling.     An  automatic  sampler  should  be 
used  (see  p.  50). 

1 1 .  Measurement  and  Weight  of  First  Masse- 
cuite. — Few  sugar-houses  have  the  facilities  for  obtain- 
ing the  direct  weight  of  the  massecuite.  Results  based 
upon  measurements  should  be  received  with  caution. 
When  practicable  the  weight  should  be  ascertained  by 
weighing  the  massecuite  in  sugar-wagons  or  in  tanks. 

The  massecuite  as  it  flows  from  the  vacuum-pan  is  filled 
with  bubbles  which  it  is  practically  impossible  to  remove, 
hence  the  difficulty  in  obtaining  a  reliable  direct  determina- 
tion of  the  density  for  use  in  the  calculation  from  volume 
to  weight. 

It  is  difficult  to  gauge  the  massecuite  in  tanks  and  obtain 
accurate  measurements.  When  the  weight  must  be  de- 
duced from  such  measurements,  it  is  advisable  that  the 
weight  of  a  unit-volume  be  determined  by  some  simple 
method,  such  as  the  following  : 

The  massecuite  is  sampled  from  time  to  time  as  it  flows 
from  ihe^p^n,  and  the  small  portions  drawn  are  united  in  a 
tall  brass  or  copper  cylinder,  as  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  5. 
S  nc  -  there  are  great  variations  in  the 
deiiaiiy  of  the  massecuite  in  different 
parts  of  the  pan,  it  is  essential  that  great 
care  be  exercised  in  this  sampling.  The 
rim  of  the  cylinder  should  be  ground,  and 
provided  with  a  strip  of  brass  or  glass(CC), 
which  extends  from  side  to  side  and  sup- 
pprt^  a  capillary  tube,  as  shown  at  T  T' 
in  the  figure.  Pins  {P  /*)  should  be  placed 
in  the  rim  of  the  cylinder  and  project 
through  the  strip,  to  insure  replacing  the 
latter  always  in  the  same  position. 

Surround  the  cylinder,  filled  with  masse- 
cuite (J/),  with  hot  water,  and  remove  as 
many  of  the  air-bubbles  ^s  possible;  cool, 
dry,  and  weigh .  Place  the  strip  C,  carrying 
the  capillary  tube  (7")  upon  the  cylinder  ;  Fig.  5. 

add  water  (  W)  from  a  burette,  being  careful  to  cause  as  few 
waves  as  possible,  until  the  capillary  tube  is  reached.    The 


12         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

instant  the  water  reaches  the  tube,  it  rises  some  distance 
by  capillarity,  and  affords  prompt  means  of  ascertaining 
when  the  vessel  has  been  filled  to  a  certain  point.  If 
water  slightly  colored  with  phenolphthalein  be  used,  the 
rise  of  the  water  may  be  observed  with  ease.  The  difference 
between  the  volume  of  the  cylinder  to  the  capillary  tube 
and  the  volume  of  water  added  is  the  required  volume  of 
the  massecuite. 

It  is  evident  that  this  method  can  only  be  used  in  a  build- 
ing free  from  vibrations.  Under  proper  conditions,  a 
measurement  to  within  two  or  three  tenths  of  a  cubic  centi- 
metre can  be  made  by  this  method    in  a  large  cylinder. 

A  convenient-sized  cylinder  is  8  centimetres  in  diame- 
ter by  25  centimetres  in  depth,  holding  approximately  1500 
grams  of  massecuite. 

In  houses  where  the  massecuite  is  run  into  large  rectan- 
gular tanks  or  into  small  portable  tanks,  the  volume  may 
be  roughly  approximated  by  the  above  method;  but  where 
the  various  forms  of  "  crystallizers  with  movement"  are 
used,  or  the  massecuite  is  run  directly  into  the  mixer,  the 
weight  can  only  be  calculated  from  the  analysis  and  the 
volume  of  the  lower  products.  In  order  to  estimate  approx- 
imately the  loss  of  sucrose  at  this  stage  when  "  boiling  in  " 
is  practised,  the  analysis  and  volume  of  the  molasses  used 
must  be  known.  It  is  not  possible  to  do  more  than  closely 
approximate  the  loss  without  knowing  the  actual  weight  of 
the  massecuite. 

12.  Measurement  and  Weight  of  the  Second 
Massecuite,  etc. — With  modern  methods  of  boiling  first- 
sugar,  i.e.,  "boiling  in"  molasses  on  first-sugar,  there  is 
comparatively  little  of  the  lower  grades  of  massecuite 
made.  Such  massecuite  is  usually  boiled  on  a  footing  of 
grained  massecuite  and  then  run  into  motion  crystallizers; 
low  material'  is  often  boiled  to  "string-proof."  The  weight 
may  be  estimated  from  that  of  a  unit  volume.  The  measure- 
ment may  be  made  in  the  tank  after  the  massecuite  attains 
approximately  the  temperature  of  the  hot-rcom.  A  correction 
for  expansion  should  be  made,  or  the  weight  of  a  measured 
volume  at  the  temperature  of  measurement  should  be  deter- 
mined. 


ESTIMATION   OF   LOSSES.  13 

13.  Sugar-weights.— The  sugar-weights  should  be 
reported  to  the  chemist  for  tabulation  and  for  his  use  in 
calculating  the  yield  and  losses. 

ESTIMATION   OF   LOSSES    AND  THE   DIVISION    OF 
THE  MANUFACTURING  SEASON  INTO  PERIODS. 

14.  Division  of  the  Season  into  Periods.— In 

factories  which  suspend  manufacturing  operations  every 
Sunday,  it  is  a  simple  matter  to  divide  the  season  into 
periods  of  one  week  each,  but  in  other  factories  it  requires 
a  systematic  scheme  of  estimates  to  do  this. 

.The  following  plan  has  given  excellent  results  in  the 
hands  of  the  author,  and  is  suggested  :  Sunday  is  a  conven- 
ient time  for  beginning  a  period;  for  example,  let  each 
period  begin  at  6  a.m.  that  day.  At  six  o'clock  the  chemist 
and  his  assistants  pass  through  the  sugar-house  and  meas- 
ure and  estimate  the  quantities  of  materials  in  stock. 

This  inch^des  the  measurement  of  the  juice  and  sirup;  an 
estimate  of  tne  juice  and  sirup  in  the  multiple  effect  and  of  the 
massecuite  in  process  in  the  vacuum  pans;  the  measurement  of 
the  massecuite  in  the  crystallizers,  mixers  and  centrifugals,  and 
an  estimate  of  the  sugar  in  the  centrifugals,  hoppers,  granulators, 
etc.  The  last  package  serial  mmiber  must  be  noted,  or  the 
quantity  of  sugar  produced  to  the  moment  of  stock-taking  must 
be  ascertained  by  other  means.  Where  crystallizers  are  em- 
ployed, as  is  now  usual,  the  massecuite  is  most  conveniently  and 
accurately  measured  at  the  time  of  discharging  it  from  the  pans. 
The  measurement  is  made  in  the  crystallizer.  Prompt  measure- 
ment is  necessary,  since  the  massecuite  expands  as  the  crystalli- 
zation progresses.  The  various  materials  should  be  sampled 
and  analyzed. 

From  the  quantity  of  material  and  its  composition,  the  sugar 
value  or  probable  yield  of  sugar  is  calculated,  using  the  formula 
given  on  page  14.  It  should  be  noted  that  using  apparent 
purities  in  the  calculation  only  approximate  results  are  obtained, 
also  that  losses  in  manufacture  are  less  from  massecuite  to  sugar 
than  from  juice  or  sirup: 


14  HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

looP-BM  .  ,  1    ^  ,1 

X  =  —3 rj—  =  percentage  yield  of  granulated  sugar  from  the 

material;  P,  is  the  polarization  of  the  material;  B,  its  degree 
Brix;  and  M,  its  coefficient  of  purity.  To  adapt  the  formula  to 
the  calculation  of  raw  sugar,  substitute  the  following  expression 
for  the  denominator:  p—{SM -r- 100),  in  which  p  is  the  polariza- 
tion of  the  sugar  and  5  the  percentage  of  dry  matter  it  contains. 
This  formula  gives  the  total  sugar  value,  whether  the  product 
is  obtained  in  one  or  more  operations. 

15.  Loss  of  Sucrose  in  the  Exhausted  Cos- 
settes  (Pulp). — In  the  analysis  of  the  exhausted  cossettes, 
the  percentage  of  sucrose  is  expressed  in  terms  of  the 
cossettes.  In  order  to  calculate  the  loss  of  sucrose,  it -is 
necessary  to  know  the  weight  of  exhausted  cossettes  per 
100  pounds  of  beets.  This  number  can  only  be  accurately 
determined  by  actuaUy  weighing  the  cossettes  from  a  defi- 
nite weight  of  beets.  This  is  manifestly  impracticable, 
hence  the  chemist  must  necessarily  base  his  calculations 
upon  the  average  of  a  few  weighings  made  each  season. 

It  is  also  evident  that  different  diffusion-battery  condi- 
tions result  in  differences  in  the  percentage  of  exhausted 
cossettes.  The  depth  of  the  diffuser,  the  working  temper- 
ature, the  condition  of  the  beets,  the  thickness  of  the  cos- 
sette,  and  the  use  of  water-pressure  only  or  water-pressure 
and  compressed  air,  all  have  their  influence  upon  the  weight 
of  exhausted  cossettes  produced. 

In  general,  it  is  usually  considered  that  100  pounds  of 
beets,  when  working  by  water- pressure  only,  produce  ap- 
proximately 90  to  100  pounds  of  well-drained  exhausted 
cossettes,  and  working  with  compressed  air,  100  pounds  of 
beets  produce  approximately  80  to  85  pounds  of  exhausted 
cossettes. 

16.  Loss  of  Sucrose  in  the  Waste  Water.— It 
is  not  practicable  to  measure  the  waste  water  in  the  diffu- 
sion process.  In  order  to  figure  the  loss  of  sucrose  at  this 
stage  of  the  manufacture  it  is  necessary  that  this  quantity 
be  known;  hence,  being  unable  to  ascertain  it  by  actual 
measurement,  it  must  be  determined  approximately  by 
calculation. 


ESTIMATION"   OF   LOSSES.  15 

t  he  total  volume  of  the  diffuser  and  its  connections  must 
be  known,  also  the  weight  and  specific  gravity  of  the  ex- 
hausted cossettes. 

It  is  more  convenient  to  use  the  metric  system  in  these 
calculations. 

Calculation. 
Let  X  =  the   required  volume  of  waste    water   in    hecto- 
litres; 
D  =  specific  gravity  of  the  exhausted  cossettes; 
tV  =  the  weight  of  the  exhausted  cossettes  per  diffuser 

in  kilograms; 
F  =  the  net  volume  of  the  diffuser  in  hectolitres,  i.f., 
the    volume    between    the    upper    and    lower 
strainers; 

X  ■=V =-  =  the  waste  water  in  the  net  diffuser 

iooZ> 

in  hectolitres. 

To  obtajK  the  total  volume  of  the  waste  water,  add  the 

calculated    volume   of    the    "dead    space,"   i.e.y   the    space 

.;.bove  and  below  the  strainers  and  of  the  parts  of  the  pipes 

which  drain  into  the  diffuser. 

Example. 

(A  diffusion-battery  using  water-pressure  only.) 

Volume  of  the  diffuser  (net),  hectolitres 30 

Weight  of   the   exhausted  cossettes  per  diffuser, 

kilograms 1300 

\Veight  of  fresh  cossettes  per  diffuser,  kilograms..   1530 

Specific  gravity  of  the  exhausted  cossettes 0.984 

Ter  cent  sucrose  in  the  waste  water .05 

Volume  of  the  "  dead  space,"  hectolitres 2.5 

W  1300 

X  ~  V =  30 —  —  30  —  13.2  =  16.8  hectolitres, 

\ooD  98.4 

and  16.8  +  2.5  =  19.3  hectolitres  total   waste   water.     This 

water  contains    so   little   solid   matter  in   solution  that   its 

specific  gravity  may  be  considered  to  be  i,  hence  19.3  hecto- 

1930 

litres  of  the  waste  water  weigh  1930  kilograms  or X  100 

1530 

~  126  kilograms  per  100  kilograms  of  beets.     126  X  .05  -;-  100 


16         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

=  .063  kilogram  of  sucrose  lost  per  100  kilograms  of  beets 
or  .063  pound  of  sucrose  per  100  pounds  of  beets. 

The  quantity  of  sucrose  in  the  waste  water  is  so  small 
that  a  very  considerable  error  in  figuring  the  volume  of  the 
waste  water  has  but  little  influence. 

With  a  battery  employing  compressed  air,  the  volume  of 
the  waste  water  is  very  small,  and  is  determined  by  deduct- 
ing the  volume  of  diffusion-juice  drawn  from  the  volume 
of  the  waste  water  as  calculated  above. 

In  the  above  example,  assuming  a  "  draw  "  of  115  litres 
of  diffusion-juice  per  100  kilograms  of  beets,  using  com- 
pressed air,  the  volume  of  the  waste  water  would  be  calcu- 
lated as  follows  : 

15.3  X  115  =  1759-5  litres  =  17.595  hectolitres  of  juice 
drawn  and  19.3  —  17.595  =  1.705  hectolitres  of  waste  water 
=  170.5  kilograms,  or  11. i  kilograms  per  100  kilograms  of 
beets.  The  loss  of  sucrose  would  be  11.  i  X  .05  -r- 100=  .0056 
kilogram  per  100  kilograms  of  beets  or  .0056  pound  per  100 
pounds  of  beets. 

17.  Estimation  of  the  Losses  of  Sucrose  in 
the  Diffusion  by  Difference.  —  If  it  were  always 
practicable  to  ascertain  the  exact  weight  of  the  beets  enter- 
ing the  diffusers,  the  simplest  method  of  estimating  the  loss 
of  sucrose  in  the  diffusion  would  be  by  deducting  the  su- 
crose obtained  in  the  diffusion-juice  from  that  present  in  the 
beets,  as  ascertained  by  direct  analysis.  There  are  several 
probable  sources  of  error  in  this  method  when  not  based 
upon  the  actual  net  weight  of  the  beets.  The  tare  (3) 
includes  that  part  of  the  neck  of  the  beet  which  should  be 
removed  in  the  field,  but  which  has  been  left  through  care- 
less topping  ;  this  passes  into  the  diffusion -battery  and 
contributes  its  sugar  to  the  juice.  This  sugar  increases  the 
quantity  in  the  juice  without  being  charged  to  the  beet 
supplying  it. 

In  brief,  except  in  houses  where  the  beets  are  weighed 
immediately  before  they  are  sliced,  the  only  method  of  de- 
termining the  losses  in  the  diffusion  is  by  direct  gauging 
and  analysis  of  the  waste  products.  It  is  always  advisable 
to  make  these  analyses. 

Many  chemists  consider  that  there  is  usually  some  loss 


ESTIMATION   OF   LOSSES.  17 

through  decomposition  of  sucrose  in  the  battery.  Such  loss 
has  not  been  clearly  proven. 

There  is  probably  not  often  an  appreciable  inversion  of 
sucrose  in  the  diffusion  of  beets,  except  when  there  aj:e 
long  delays. 

In  the  event  of  inversion  the  loss  may  be  calculated  by 
the  formulae  used  in  cane-sugar-houses,  which  were  first 
proposed  by  Dr.  Stubbs  of  Louisiana  (263). 

18.  Loss  of  Sucrose  iu  the  Filter  Press-cake.— 
The  weight  of  the  press-cake  per  ton  of  beets  X  per  cent 
sucrose  in  the  press-cake  -4-  loo  =  pounds  of  sucrose  lost 
per  ton  of  beets.  In  sugar-houses  in  which  it  is  not  con- 
venient to  weigh  the  press-cake  the  approximate  weight 
may  be  estimated  by  the  following  method  :  Weigh  several 
entire  press-cakes  and  figure  the  average  weight;  multiply 
the  average  by  the  number  of  cakes  per  press.  A  record 
must  be  kept  of  the  number  of  presses  emptied.  The 
average  w^ght  should  occasionally  be  verified. 

19.  Los^  of  Sucrose  in  the  Evaporation  to 
Sirup. — An  examination  of  the  ammoniacal  waters  from 
the  multiple-effect  apparatus  will  sometimes  reveal  the 
presence  of  sucrose.  It  is  practically  impossible  to  esti- 
mate this  loss  from  the  analyses  of  these  waters,  since  the 
weight  of  the  water  is  unknown  and  the  percentage  of  su- 
crose small.  The  quantity  of  sucrose  lost  is  best  determined 
by  the  difference  between  the  weight  of  sucrose  in  the 
purified  juice  and  that  in  the  sirup.  To  obtain  the  weight 
of  sucrose  in  the  purified  juice  otherwise  than  by  direct 
analysis,  the  loss  in  the  filter  press-cakes  and  at  the 
mechanical  filters  must  be  deducted  from  the  weight  of 
sucrose  entering  the  house  in  the  diffusion-juices. 

The  following  are  some  of  the  sources  of  loss  of  sucrose 
in  the  evaporation  :  Priming,  i.e.,  juice  entrained  with  the 
vapors  ;  caramelization  and  decomposition  of  the  sugar. 
The  liquors  should  always  be  alkaline,  hence  there  is  no 
loss  from  inversion. 

20.  Loss  of  Sucrose  in  the  Vacuum-pan.— The 
estimation  of  the  loss  in  the  granulation  of  the  sugar  in  the 
vacuum-pan  is  difficult.  The  sources  of  loss  are  the  same 
as  those  in  the  multiple-effect.    If  the  weight  of  the  masse- 


18  HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

cuite  can  be  accurately  ascertained  (11),  the  loss  can  be  de- 
termined with  certainty,  as  the  weight  of  sucrose  in  the 
sirup  should  balance  that  in  the  massecuite.  The  "boiling 
in"  of  molasses  with  first-sugar  complicates  the  determina- 
tion in  so  far  as  it  requires  that  the  quantity  and  analysis  of 
such  molasses  be  known.  The  weighf  of  sucrose  in  the 
massecuite  can  be  ascertained  indirectly  when  boiling 
"straight  strikes  "  from  the  weight  of  sugar  obtained  and 
the  volume  of  molasses  produced,  the  weight  of  sucrose  in 
the  "wash"  used  in  the  centrifugals  being  deducted.  In 
the  event  of  its  not  being  convenient  to  gauge  the  molasses, 
the  measurement  may  be  made  after  concentration  to  sec- 
ond massecuite,  the  loss  indicated  being  that  of  the  two 
boilings. 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS.  19 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.     OPTICAL  METHODS. 

APPARATUS  AND  MANIPULATION, 

21.  The  Polariscope. — The  instrument  employed  in 
the  optical  methods  of  determining  cane-sugar  and  other 
sugars  is  termed  a  polariscope,  or  saccharimeter.  This 
instrument  depends  in  theory  and  construction  upon  the 
action  of  sugar  upon  the  plane  of  polarization  of  light. 

Polariscopes  may  be  divided  into  two  general  classes, 
viz.,  shadow  and  transition-tint  instruments.  The  shadow 
instruments  may  be  subdivided  into  polariscopes  employing 
white  light.-^s  from  an  ordinary  kerosene  lamp,  and  those 
employing  monochromatic  light,  supplied  by  a  sodium  lamp. 

The  principal  instruments  in  use  are  the  half-shadow, 
triple-field  and  the  transition-tint  polariscopes.  The  shadow 
instruments  are  constructed  for  use  with  white  light  and 
with  the  yellow  monochromatic  light.  The  former  are 
usually  employed  in  commercial  work,  and  the  latter  in 
scientific  investigations. 

The  transition-tint  instruments  are  being  rapidly  dis- 
placed by  the  shadow  polariscopes,  since  these  latter  leave 
little  to  be  desired  in  the  matter  of  accuracy  and  conven- 
ience. 

The  reader  is  referred  to  the  manuals  of  Wiley  and 
others  for  the  theory  and  construction  of  polariscopes. 

A  brief  description  of  the  polariscopes  in  general  use  will 
suffice  for  the  purposes  of  this  book. 

22.  Half-shadow  Polariscope  (Schmidt  and 
Haensch). — The  optical  parts  of  this  instrument  are  in- 
dicated in  Fig.  6.  At  O  there  is  a  slightly  modified  Jellet-" 
Corny  Nicol  prism,  at  G  is  a  plate  of  dextrogyratory 
quartz,  at  i?  is  a  quartz  wedge,  movable  by  means  of  the 
screw  M,  and  at  /^  is  a  quartz  wedge,  fixed  in  position,  to 
vrhich  is  attached  the  vernier.     The  scale  is  attached  to  the 


20 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


movable  wedge.  These  quartz  wedges  are  of  laevogyratory 
quartz.  The  parts  G,  E,  and  /^constitute  the  compensating 
apparatus,  i.e.\  the  apparatus  which  compensates  for  the 
deviation  of  the  plane  of  polarization  due  to  the  influence 
of  the  solution  of  the  optically  active  body  placed  in  the 


observation-tube  as  shown  in  the  figure.  At  H  is  the  ana- 
lyzer, a  Nicol  prism.  Aty  is  the  telescope  used  in  making 
the  observation,  and  K  is  the  telescope  and  reflector  for 
reading  the  scale.  The  two  lenses,  shown  in  the  diagram 
at  the   extreme   right,  are    for  concentrating    the    rays    •£ 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS. 


21 


light  from  the  lamp  and  transmitting  them  in  parallel  lines 
to  the  polarizing  Nicol  prism. 

The  instrument  above  described  is  of  the  single  compen- 
sating type. 


The  double  compensating  instrument  is  shown  in  Fig.  7. 
This  polariscope  differs  from  the  single  compensating  in- 
strument in  having  two  sets  of  quartz  wedges  of  opposite 
optical  properties  and  two  scales  and  verniers. 

The  field  of  vision  of  the  above  instruments  when  set  at 


22 


HANDBOOK   FOK   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 


the  neutral  point  is  a  uniformly  shaded  disk.  If  the  milled 
screw  controlling  the  compensating  wedge  be  slightly 
turned  to  the  right  or  left,  one  half  the  disk  will  be  shaded 
and  the  other  light.  It  is  from  this  half-shaded  disk  that 
this  type  of  instruments  takes  its  name. 

23.    Triple  -  Field     Polariseope    (Schmidt    and 
Haensch). — This  instrument  differs  from  the  preceding  in 


having  two  small  Nicol  prisms  placed  in  front  of  the  polar- 
izer, as  shown  in  Fig.  8.  The  field  of  the  instrument  is 
divided  into  three  parts,  i,  2,  and  3  of  the  diagram,  Fig.  9. 
This  figure  shows  the  arrangement  of  the  Nicol  prisms 
(i,   II,    III)  and  a    diagram    of    the    field    of    observation. 


SUGAR   AifALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS. 


23 


When  the  scale  is  set  at  the  zero  point,  no  optically  active 
body  being  interposed,  the  field  is 
uniformly  shaded  ;  in  other  posi- 
tions I  is  shaded  and  2  and  3  are 
light,  or  vice  versa.  This  arrange- 
ment permits  a  very  high  degree  of 
accuracy  in  the  adjustment  of  the 
field  in  polariscopic  observations.  Ac- 
cording to  the  experiments  of  Wiley  ' 
this  instrument  is  extremely  sensitive 
and  is  capable  of  results  but  little  in- 
ferior to  those  with  the  Landolt- 
Lippich  apparatus.  It  is  probably 
the  superior,  in  point  of  accuracy, 
to  other  instruments  designed  for 
industrial  work. 

24.  Liaurent  Polariscope. — 
The  Laurent  "pi?3+^iscope  (Fig.  10)  is 
a  half-shadow  instrument.  It  was 
originally  designed  for  use  with  a 
monochromatic  flame,  but  these  in- 
struments, as  now  made,  are  provided  also  with  compen- 
sating apparatus  for  use  with  white  light. 

In  the  Laurent  polariscope  the  analyzer  is  revolved  by 
means  of  a  milled  screw,  to  compensate  for  the  deflection 
of  the  plane  of  polarization  by  the  sugar  solution.  The 
angular  rotation  is  measured  by  means  of  a  scale  and  ver- 
nier. This  instrument  is  also  provided  with  a  second  scale, 
termed  the  cane-sugar  scale,  on  which  the  per  cents  may 
be  read  directly. 

As  stated  above,  the  Laurent  polariscope  is  also  often 
provided  with  a  compensating  apparatus  (Fig.  11),  which 
permits  the  use  of  white  light. 

A  distinctive  feature  of  the  Laurent  instrument  is  the 
adjustable  polarizer.  This  Nicol  prism  may  be  rotated 
through  a  small  angle,  thus  permitting  the  sensitiveness  of 
the  instrument  to  be  varied. 

The   polarized   light   is   passed  through  a  disk   of  glass, 


1  Agricultural  Analysis,  3,  gi. 


24         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


Fig.  iz, 


SUGAR   ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS. 


25 


one  half  of  which  is  covered  with  a  thin   plate  of  quartz, 

thus  producing  the  half-shadow  feature  of  the  instrument. 

25.  The  Transition-tint  Polariscope.    Soleil- 

Ventzke-Scheibler,  —  The  tint  polariscope,  Fig.   12, 


resembles  in  appearance  the  half-shadow  instrument  of 
Schmidt  and  Haensch.  It  differs  from  this  in  being  pro- 
vided with  an  additional  Nicol  prism  at  A  and  a  quartz  plate 
B,  which  produce  the  color.  The  tint  is  varied  by  means 
of  a  spur-wheel  and  pinion,  revolved  by  a  rod  with  a 
milled  head,  Z.     The  optical  parts  at  the  front  end  of  the 


26  HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

instrument   are  the  same  as  in  the  Schmidt  and   Haensch 
half-shadow  polariscope. 

The  field  is  colored,  and  when  the  instrument  is  set  at 
the  neutral  point  the  tint  is  uniform.  The  sensitive  tint 
for  most  eyes  is  a  rose-violet. 

26.  Genertil  Remarks  upon  Polariscopes.— 
The  Laurent  polariscope  is  very  extensively  used  in  France, 
and  to  but  a  limited  extent  in  other  parts  of  Europe  and  in 
this  country.  The  tint  instruments  were  formerly  used 
almost  exclusively,  but  have  been  largely  replaced  by  the 
various  forms  of  half-shadow  polariscopes.  Tint  instru- 
ments, obviously,  cannot  be  used  by  persons  who  are 
color-blind. 

All  polariscopes  are  made  to  receive  observation-tubes  of 
various  lengths.     The  standard  length  is  200  millimetres. 

There  are  several  forms  of  polariscopes  in  addition  to 
those  described,  but  for  industrial  work  it  is  unnecessary 
to  mention  others. 

27.  Manipulation  of  a  Polariscope.— Having  dis- 
solved the  normal  weight  (28)  of  the  material  under  examin- 
ation in  water,  clarify  the  solution  as  described  in  30.  Fill 
the  observation-tube  with  a  portion  of  the  clarified  solution, 
and  pass  the  light  froiii  a  suitable  lamp  into  the  instrument. 
The  observer,  with  his  eye  at  the  small  telescope  y  of  the 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  instruments,  Figs.  6,  7,  8,  and  12,  or 
the  corresponding  part  of  the  Laurent,  will  notice  that  one 
half  the  disk  is  shaded  or  more  deeply  colored,  according 
to  the  kind  of  polariscope,  provided  the  instrument  is  not 
set  at  the  neutral  point.  The  vertical  line  dividing  the 
half-disks  should  be  sharply  defined;  if  not,  the  oculai' 
should  be  slipped  backwards  or  forwards  until  a  sharp 
focus  is  obtained.  Turn  the  milled  screw  until  the  field 
appears  uniformly  shaded  or  tinted  on  both  sides  of  the 
vertical  line,  and  then  read  the  scale  (29).  A  little  prac- 
tice will  enable  the  observer  to  detect  very  slight  differ- 
ences in  the  depth  of  the  shadow  or  color  and  to  attain 
great  accuracy  in  this  manipulation. 

The  manipulation  of  the  triple-field  polariscope  is  as 
described  above  except  as  to  the  position  of  the  shadows 
(23). 


SUGAR   ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS.  27 

In  the  older  models  of  polariscopes,  the  ray  filter,  a  dichromate 
of  potash  crystal  in  an  occular,  should  be  used  with  very  clear 
solutions.  In  recent  models  the  filter  consists  of  a  glass  cell 
containing  the  salt  in  solution.  This  filter  is  placed  in  a 
chamber  in  front  of  the  polarizer,  and  the  instrument  should 
only  be  used  with  it  in  place. 

The  Laurent  instrument  is  fitted  with  a  device  for  vary- 
ing its  sensitiveness.  This  is  convenient  in  polarizing 
dark-colored  solutions,  since  a  slight  change  in  the  position 
of  the  lever  which  rotates  the  polarizer  will  increase  the 
intensity  of  the  light,  though  at  the  same  time  decreasing 
the  sensitiveness  of  the  instrument:  and  vice  versa  in  polar- 
izing very  clear  light-colored  solutions,  the  rotation  of  the 
polarizer  in  the  opposite  direction,  through  a  small  angle, 
increases  the  sensitiveness. 

The  double  compensating  Schmidt  and  Haensch  polari- 
scopes are"\>rovided  with  two  scales,  one  graduated  in 
black  and  tRe  other  usually  in  red.  The  black  scale  is 
operated  by  a  black  milled  screw,  and  the  red  scale  by  a 
brass  screw.  For  ordinary  work,  set  the  red  scale  at  zero 
and  equalize  the  field  with  the  black  screw.  To  check  the 
readings,  remove  the  observation  tube  and  equalize  the 
field  with  the  brass  screw.  The  readings  on  the  two  scales 
should  agree.  To  make  a  reading  with  laevorotatory  sugar 
set  the  black  scale  at  zero,  and  use  the  brass  screw  and  red 
scale. 

The  manipulations  of  the  tint  instruments,  as  explained, 
are  similar  to  those  of  the  shadow  polariscopes,  except  that 
a  uniform  tint  must  be  obtained.  The  intensity  of  the  tint 
varies  with  the  position  of  the  analyzer.  The  color  is 
varied  by  turning  the  milled  screw  on  the  horizontal  rod 
which  revolves  the  regulator. 

The  Schmidt  and  Haensch  shadow  polariscopes,  the 
Laurent  with  special  attachment,  and  the  tint  instruments 
require  a  strong  white  light.  A  kerosene-lamp  with  duplex 
burner  is  usually  employed.  A  gas-lamp  such  as  shown 
in  Fig.  8  is  very  convenient  in  many  localities.  The 
kerosene-lamp  should  be  provided  with  a  metal  chimney. 

Dr.    Wiechmann    uses    the    Welsbach  light    in    his  labo- 


28 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


ratory  at  the  Havemeyer  &  Elder  refinery,  Brooklyn,  and 
finds  it  very  satisfactory.  Dr. 
Wiley  of  the  U.  S.  Department  of 
Agriculture  has  investigated  the 
use  of  the  light  from  acetylene  gas 
for  polariscopic  purposes,  and  states 
that  the  readings  obtained  are  very 
accurate  and  that  the  light  is  espe- 
cially convenient  when  polarizing 
very  dark-colored  solutions.  This 
gas  is  readily  and  economically 
produced,  in  the  small  quantities 
required  for  polariscopic  purposes 
in  sugar-works,  by  the  decomposi- 
tion of  calcium  carbide  in  water,  in  a 
suitable  gas-holder.  Incandescent 
electric-lamps,  properly  arranged  for 
the  diffusion  of  the  light,  yield  ex- 
cellent results  with  white-light  polari- 
scopes.  In  new  models  of  polari- 
scopes  the  electric  lamp  is  attached 
to  the  instrument.  Lamps  for  mono- 
chromatic light  are  the  Laurent  gas- 
sodium  and  the  Landolt  gas-sodium 
lamps,  and  the  Laurent  eolipyle, 
burning  alcohol. 
F'G.  13.  M.     Dupont '    has  recently  experi- 

mented with  various  sodium  salts  for  use  in  monochromatic 
lamps.  He  finds  that  sodium  chloride  and  tribasic  phosphate 
of  sodium,  melted  together  in  molecular  proportions,  give 
excellent  results  and  are  in  every  way  superior  to  sodium 
chloride  alone. 

28.  The  Polariscopic  Scale.  The  Normal 
Weight. — The  scales  of  polariscopes  for  use  in  industrial 
work  are  usually  so  divided  that  if  a  certain  weight  of  the 
substance    be   dissolved    in   water    and    the   solution   diluted 


*  Bulletin  de  V Association  des  Chiniistes  de  France^  14,  1041 


SUGAR   ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS. 


29 


to  lOO  cc.,*  and  observed  in  a  20-centimetre  tube,  the  read- 
ing will  be  in  percentages  of  sucrose.  This  scale  is  termed 
the  "cane-sugar  scale,"  and  the  weight  of  material  re- 
quired to  give  percentage  readings  is  termed  the  "normal 
weight,"  or  sometimes  the  "  factor  of  the  instrument." 

In  commercial  work  the  divisions  of  the  scale  are  often 
termed  "degrees,"  especially  in  the  polarization  of  sugars. 

The  normal  weight  for  the  German  instruments  is  26.048 
grams,  and  for  the  Laurent  16.29  grams.  The  number 
given  for  the  Laurent  polariscope  is  that  adopted  by  the 
2^    Congres  International  de  Chimie  Appliqude,  1896. 

29.  Readings  the  Polariscopic  Scale.— Having 
equalized  the  shadow  or  tint  as  directed  in  27,  examine 
the  scale  through  the  reading-glass.  For  example  :  Let 
the  scale  and  vernier  have  the  positions  shown  in  Fig.  14. 


I 


20 


30 


40 


u 


I  ,1.1,1,1 


mill 


I 


m 


10 


10 


Fig.  14. 
The  zero  of  the  vernier  is  between  30  and  31;  record  the 
lower  number;  note  the  point  to  the  right  at  which  a  line  of 
the  vernier,  the  small  scale,  corresponds  with  a  line  of  the 
scale,  in  this  case  at  7;  enter  this  number  in  the  tenths 
place.  The  completed  reading  is  30.7.  The  portions  of  the 
scale  and  vernier  to  the  left  of  the  zeros  are  used  in  the 
polarization  of  laevorotatory  bodies.  If  the  zero  of  the  ver- 
nier correspond  exactly  with  a  division  of  the  scale,  the 
reading  is  a  whole  number. 

If  the  normal  weight  of  the  material  have  been  dissolved 
in  a  volume  of  100  cc.^  and  a  20-centimetre  observation-tube 
have  been  used,  the  reading  on  the  cane-sugar  scale  is  the 
percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  substance,  provided  other  op- 
tically active  bodies  than  sucrose  are  absent.     The  read- 


..  *  The  flasks  should  be  graduated  to  hold  100  grains  of  distilled  water  at 
i7i°  C.  and  not  to  true  cubic  centimetres,  for  the  S.  and  H.  instruments, 
but  to  true  cc.  for  the  Laurent. 


30         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

ings  must  be  corrected  for  other  weights  of  the  substance 
than  the  normal,^  for  other  volumes  than  lOO  cc,  and  for 
other  tube  lengths  than  20  centimetres. 

30.  Preparatiou  of  Solutions  for  Polariza- 
tion.— Dissolve  the  normal  or  other  convenient  weight  of 
the  material  in  water.  Add  sufficient  subacetate  of  lead 
to  clarify  the  solution.  It  is  difficult  to  specify  the  amount 
of  the  lead  salt  to  use.  If  too  little  or  too  much  be  used,  the 
solutions  usually  filter  with  difficulty  and  become  turbid. 
With  juice  from  immature  beets  the  filtered  solution  will 
sometimes  be  perfectly  clear  and  colorless  when  first  ob- 
tained and  in  a  few  moments  become  too  dark  to  polarize. 
Ih  such  cases  the  juice  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  with 
the  lead  solution  and  stand  some  time  before  filtration. 
Usually  ID  cc.  of  the  dilute  solution  "^  subacetate  of  lead 
(207)  or  2-3  cc.  of  the  concentrated  solution  (208)  will  be 
sufficient  for  100  cc.  of  beet  juice.  Sugars  of  high  grade 
require  only  a  few  drops  of  the  reagent.  After  adding  the 
lead  salt  dilute  to  100  cc,  mix  thoFougbly  and  filter.  Reject 
the  first  few  drops  of  the  filtrate.  Fill  the  observation- 
tube  with  a  portion  of  the  filtrate,  and  polarize  as  described 
in  27. 

In  sugar  analysis  the  materials  to  be  examined  are  most 
conveniently  weighed  in  a  nickel  or  German-silver  capsule 
such  as  is  shown  in  Fig.   15.      A  convenient   filtering  ar- 
rangement is  illustrated 
in  Fig.  16.     ^  is  a  stem- 
less  funnel;  B  is  a.  quar- 
ter-pint precipitating  jar; 
(7  is    a    small    cylinder. 
The  stemless  funnels  may 
Fig.  15.  be    made    of   tinplate    or 

thin  copper,  planished.  The  latter,  while  more  expensive, 
are  preferable,  as  they  are  more  durable.     A  plain  cylin- 


'-i*t*fie  Tnternational  Commission  for  Uniform  Methods  in  Sugar 
Analysis  has  adopted  a  normal  weight  of  26  grams  to  be  used  with  a 
flask  holding  100  metric  or  true  cubic  centimeters;  the  polariscope  Ts 
ptandardized  at  20^  C. 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL  METHODS. 


31 


der  is  preferred  by  some  chemists,  as  the  funnel  makes  a 
close  joint  with  the  edge. 

The  advantage  of  the  metal  stemless  funnels  and  the 
heavy  glass  precipitating  jar  or  the  lipped  cylinder  is  the 
ease  with  which  they  may  be  washed  and  dried.  The  jar 
or  cylinder  is  also  a  very  convenient  support  for  the  funnel. 

Stammer  and  Sickel  advise  the  addition  of  at  least  four 
times  the  weight  of  the  sucrose  in  the  massecuite  or  mo- 


FiG.  i6. 

lasses,  of  strong  alcohol  in  preparing  solutions  for  polariza- 
tion, and  if  the  substance  be  alkaline  to  acidulate  with  acetic 
acid.'  Herzfeld,  as  the  result  of  his  experiments,  gives 
the  same  advice.^  Other  equally  prominent  chemists  con- 
sider the  use  of  alcohol  unnecessary  and  liable  to  lead  to 
error. 

31.  The  Adjustment  of  the  Polariscope.— The 
scale  of  the  polariscope  is  the  only  part  which  is  liable  to  get 
out  of  position.  Fill  an  observation-tube  with  water  and 
make  an  observation.  If  the  scale  be  properly  adjusted  the 
reading  should  be  zero. 

The  method  of  adjusting  the  instrument  to  read  zero 
under  the  above  conditions  is  the  same  with  all  the  Schmidt 


*  Revue  Universelle  de  la  Fabrication  du  Sucre,  ad  year,  578. 

*  Deutsche  Zuckerind.y  1886,  No.  24. 


32  HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

and  Haensch  polariscopes.  A  micrometer-screw,  turned  by 
means  of  a  key,  is  arranged  to  move  the  vernier  a  short  dis- 
tance. The  field  is  equalized  as  usual  by  manipulating  the 
milled  screw.  The  micrometer-screw  is  then  turned  until 
the  zeros  of  the  scale  and  vernier  coincide.  The  scale  is 
moved  through  several  divisions  and  the  field  then  equal- 
ized as  before.  If  after  several  trials  the  zeros  be  found 
not  to  coincide,  the  adjustment  must  be  repeated,  turning 
the  micrometer-screw  very  little.  It  usually  requires  several 
trials  to  set  the  instrument  to  read  zero.  This  adjustment 
is  very  fatiguing  to  the  eye,  which  should  be  rested  a  few 
seconds  between  readings. 

In  adjusting  the  Laurent  polariscopes  to  read  zero,  the 
lever  U,  Figs.  lo  and  ii,  is  lifted  to  the  upper  limit;  the  oc- 
ular O  is  next  focused  on  the  vertical  line  which  divides 
the  field  into  halves  ;  the  zeros  of  the  scale  and  vernier 
are  made  to  coincide  by  the  screw  G.  The  field  should 
then  be  uniformly  shaded  if  the  instrument  is  in  .adjust- 
ment ;  if  not  in  adjustment,  equalize  with  the  screw  F. 
This  adjustment  should  be  tested  as  with  the  Schmidt  and 
Haensch  polariscopes,  and  repeated  until  satisfactory.  All 
parts  of  the  instrument  should  be  kept  very  .clean,  especially 
the  exposed  parts  of  the  lenses.  Chamois-skin  is  con- 
venient for  cleaning  the  metal  parts  and  pieces  of  clean 
old  linen  for  the  lenses.  All  the  crown-glass  lenses  should 
be  occasionally  removed  from  the  instrument  and  cleaned 
with  alcohol  and  wiped  with  old  linen.  The  Nicol  prisms 
should  not  be  removed  from  the  instrument  or  disturbed. 
The  micrometer  screw  near  H^  Figs.  6,  7,  8,  and  12,  is 
for  adjusting  the  analyzer,  should  the  field  be  unevenly 
shaded.  This  adjustment  should  be  left  to  an  experienced 
workman.  Should  the  prisms,  etc.,  require  adjustment 
owing  to  an  accident  to  the  instrument,  it  is  advisable  to 
send  the  polariscope  to  the  dealer  that  he  may  have  it  re- 
paired by  an  expert. 

32.  Notes  on  Polariscopic  AVork.— When  solu- 
tions do  not  filter  readily,  the  funnel  employed  should  be 
covered  with  a  glass  plate  to  prevent  evaporation. 

The  screw-caps  of  the  observation-tubes  should  not  bear 
heavily    upon    the    cover-glasses,    since   glass    is   double- 


SUGAR  AKALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS.  33 

refracting  under  these  conditions.  It  is  preferable  to 
use  caps  held  with  a  bayonet-catch  rather  than  screw- 
caps. 

In  making  an  observation,  the  eye  should  be  in  the  optical 
axis  of  the  instrument,  and  should  not  be  moved  from  side 
to  side. 

The  cover-glasses  should  be  of  the  best  quality  of  glass, 
perfectly  clean  and  with  parallel  surfaces.  A  glass  may  be 
tested  by  holding  it  in  front  of  a  window  and  looking 
through  it  at  the  window-bars  ;  on  turning  the  glass  slowly, 
if  the  bars  appear  to  move  the  surfaces  of  the  cover  are  not 
parallel  and  the  glass  should  be  rejected.  Old  glasses 
which  have  become  slightly  scratched  by  repeated  wiping 
should  not  be  used. 

The  planes  of  the  ends  of  the  observation-tube  should 
be  perpendicular  to  the  axis  of  the  tubes.  This  may  be 
tested  by  placing  a  tube,  containing  a  sugar  solution,  in  the 
instrument  and  making  an  observation.  On  revolving  the 
tube  in  the  trough  of  the  polariscope,  should  the  readings 
in  different  positions  vary,  the  ends  of  the  tube  have  not 
been  properly  ground. 

The  manufacturers  of  polariscopes  have  attained  such 
precision  in  their  methods  that  errors  in  the  adjustment  of 
the  instruments  or  accessories  are  rarely  found. 

The  polariscope  should  be  used  in  a  well-ventilated  room 
from  which  all  light,  except  that  from  the  polariscope-lamp, 
is  excluded.  It  is  an  excellent  arrangement  to  have  the 
lamp  in  an  adjoining  room  and  pass  the  light  through  a 
glass  screen  to  the  instrument.  Late  models  of  the  Ger- 
man polariscopes  have  mirrors  arranged  to  reflect  the  light 
to  the  scale.  When  the  instrument  is  in  a  room  adjoining 
the  lamp-room,  obviously  the  above  arrangement  cannot  be 
used.  A  small  gas-jet  or  a  candle  should  never  be  used  for 
lighting  the  scale.  A  convenient  source  of  light  is  a  half- 
candle-power  incandescent  electric  lamp  mounted  near  the 
scale  and  switched  into  the  circuit  by  an  ordinary  push- 
button. The  lamp  may  be  operated  by  a  two-cell  accumu- 
lator or  in  circuit  with  a  32-candle-power  incandescent  lamp, 
the  latter  being  outside  the  polariscope-room.     Ord'Pary 


34 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


Leclanche  cells  are  cheap  and  will  answer  for  several  hun- 
dred polarizations. 

The  instrument  should  be  occasionally  tested  with  pure 
sugar(206).  or  more  conveniently  with  standardized  quartz 
plates,  to  be  obtained  of  the  makers. 

Messrs.  Schmidt  and  Haensch  construct  a  control-tube, 
Fig.  17,  with  which  all  parts  of  the  scale  may  be  tested. 
The  sugar  solution  is  poured  into  the  funnel  T' and  flows 
into  the  tube  as  it  is  lengthened  by  turning  the  milled 
screw.  The  tube  length  is  read  on  the  scale  N.  The  figure 
describes  the  tube  sufficiently.  ^*-^ 

Errors  which  may  occur  in  the  polarization,  but  not 
through  faulty  manipulation  of  the  instrument,  are  indi- 
cated in  the  following  paragraphs. 


Fig.  17. 


33.  Error  Due  to  the  Volume  of  the  L^ead 

Precipitate. — The  lead  precipitate,  formed  in  the  clarifi- 
cation of  the  solutions,  introduces  errors  in  the  polarization, 
some  of  which  are  probably  offset  by  compensating  errors, 
notably  in  the  analysis  of  low-grade  products. 

An  important  error  is  that  due  to  the  volume  of  the  lead 
precipitate.  This  question  has  been  studied  by  a  number 
of  chemists,  notably  by  Scheibler  in  Germany  and  Sachs  in 
Belgium.  Scheibler  devised  a  simple  method  for  the  cor- 
rection of  this  error,  which  is  commonly  termed  the 
*'  method  of  double  dilution."  It  was  noticed  by  Rafey, 
Pellet,  Commerson,  and  others  that  in  low-grade  products, 
the  saline  coefficient  of  which  is  large,  there  is  apparently 


SUGAR   ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS.  35 

no  error  due  to  the  volume  of  the  precipitate,  which  is  very 
large.  They  attributed  this  fact  to  an  absorption  of  sucrose 
by  the  precipitate  at  the  moment  of  its  formation.  Sachs' 
published  an  exhaustive  paper  on  this  question  some  years 
since,  and  demonstrated  that  there  is  no  absorption  of  su- 
crose. He  attributed  the  results  with  low  products  to  the 
influence  of  acetates  of  potassium  and  sodium,  formed  with 
the  acetic  acid  set  free  in  the  decomposition  of  the  lead 
salt,  upon  the  rotatory  power  of  the  sucrose.  This  view  is 
strengthened  by  the  fact  that  there  is  a  very  perceptible 
error,  in  the  polarization  of  juices,  due  to  the  precipitate. 
The  precipitate  in  juices  contains  but  little  of  the  acetates 
of  potassium  and  sodium,  whereas  these  salts  are  formed  in 
considerable  quantities  in  molasses  and  low  products. 

Sachs*  experiments  were  made  by  increasing  the  concen- 
tration of  the  solutions  instead  of  by  dilution  as  practised 
by  Scheibler.  Sachs  dissolved  x  grams  of  molasses  in 
water,  added  sufficient  subacetate  of  lead  for  clarification, 
completed  the  volume  to  loo  cc.  and  polarized  as  usual. 
The  quantity  x  increases  from  experiment  to  experiment 
by  practically  equal  increments.  Since  the  quantity  of 
molasses  is  increased  with  each  experiment,  the  volume  of 
the  precipitate  must  increase  in  the  same  ratio.  An  in- 
crease in  the  volume  of  the  precipitate,  if  this  were  the 
only  disturbing  influence,  should  increase  the  polarization, 
since  the  volume  of  the  solution  is  decreased  and  the  con- 
centration is  increased. 

Letting  x  —  the  weight  of  molasses,  and^  =  the  polari- 

scopic  reading,  the  ratio  —  should  increase  with  each  incre- 
ment of  molasses  if  there  be  an  error  due  to  the  volume  of 
the  precipitate,  not  compensated  for  by  other  influences. 
Sachs  employed  quantities  of  molasses  ranging  from  5  to  35 
grams  in  100  cc,  and  substituting  the  values  of  x  and  ^  in 
the  ratio  and  reducing,  obtained  the  following  figures: 

ist  series  :       1.906,       1.900,       1.900,       1.906,       1.896; 
2d  series  :        2.14,         2.13,         2.14,         2.14 


^fvtfe  UniverselU  de  la  Fabrication  du  Sucre,  1>45I< 


36         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

The  practically  constant  value  of  -  shows  that  a  minus 

error  or  errors  have  fully  compensated  for  that  due  to  the 
volume  of  the  precipitate.  Sachs'  deductions  are  given 
above. 

A  similar  experiment  with  beet-juices   gave  the  foUow- 

y 

ing  values  of  -: 

X 

ist  series :         0.5446,        0.5474,        0.5480,        0.5497TV 
2d  series :         0.5800,        0.5830,        0.5842,        0.5860. 

It  is  thus  shown  that  there  is  an  increase  in  the  ratio  and 
an  error  due  to  the  volume  of  the  precipitate  in  the  analy- 
sis of  juices.  The  volume  of  the  lead  precipitate  from 
100  cc.  of  normal  juice  is  approximately  i  cc. 

It  is  not  improbable  that  at  least  to  some  extent  the  so- 
called  "losses  from  unknown  sources"  in  sugar-house 
practice  are  due  to  errors  in  analysis  which,  with  our 
present  information,  are  unavoidable. 

34.  Error  Due  to  the  Volume  of  the  Lead 
Precipitate  —  Scheibler's  Method  of  Double 
Dilution. — The  error  due  to  the  volume  of  the  lead 
precipitate  may  usually  be  determined  by  Scheibler's' 
method. 

To  100  cc.  of  the  juice  add  the  requisite  quantity  of 
subacetate  of  lead,  complete  the  volume  to  100  cc.  and 
polarize  as  usual;  a  second  portion  of  100  cc.  of  the  juice 
is  treated  with  lead  as  above,  diluted  to  220  cc.  and 
polarized. 

Calculation. — Multiply  the  second  reading  by  2,  subtract 
the  product  from  the  first  reading,  multiply  the  remainder 
by  2.2,  and  deduct  this  product  from  the  first  reading.  The 
remainder  is  the  required  per  cent  sucrose. 


•  Zeit,^  Rubenzucker -Industrie^  85,  1054. 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL  METHODS.  37 

Example, 

Degree  Brix  of  the  juice l8. 

First  polariscopic  reading  (no  cc.) 57.6 

Second  polariscopic  reading  (220  cc). .......  28.7 

2  X  28.7  =  57.4;  57-6  —  57-4  =  .2;  2.2  X  .2  =  .44;  57-6  - 
.44  =  57.16,  =  the  corrected  reading.  By  Schmitz'  table, 
as  described  on  page  76,  we  have 

15.18 
.03 
.02 

15.23  =  required  per  cent. 

In  the  application  of  this  method  to  other  products 
using  the  normal  or  multiple-normal  weight,  calculate  as 
follows: 

1st  volume,  100  cc;  2d  volume,  200  cc. 

Multiply  the  second  polariscopic  reading  by  2  and  sub- 
tract the  product  from  the  first  reading;  multiply  the  re- 
mainder by  2  and  subtract  the  product  from  the  first  reading. 
This  remainder  is  the  required  per  cent  sucrose. 

It  is  evident  that  this  method  requires  extreme  care  in 
the  polarization,  since  an  error  is  multiplied. 

35.  Sachs' '  Method  of  Determining  the  Vol- 
ume of  the  Lead  Precipitate.— Clarify  100  cc  of 
juice  with  subacetate  of  lead  as  usual,  using  a  tall  cylinder 
instead  of  a  sugar-flask.  Wash  the  precipitate  by  decanta- 
tion,  first  using  cold  water  and  finally  hot  water.  Continue 
the  washing  until  all  the  sucrose  is  removed.  Transfer  the 
precipitate  to  a  loo-cc  sugar-flask  and  add  the  one-half 
normal  weight  (13.024  grams)  of  pure  sugar,  dissolve  and 
dilute  to  100  cc,  mix,  filter,  and  polarize,  using  a  400-mm. 
tube. 


op.  cit.,  1,  451. 


38         HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

Calculation. 

Let  P  =  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  sugar; 

jP'  =  the  polarization  of  the  solution  in  the  presence 

of  the  lead  precipitate; 
X  =  volume  of  the  lead  precipitate. 

-,  lOOP'  —   lOOP  _ 

■f  hen  X  = ;; .  X 


Example, 

tet  P    =    99.9; 

P'     =  100.77. 

^.  _  100  X  100.77  —  100  X  99-9 

1  fltftii  X   — 

100.77 

=  .86  cc,  the  volume  of  the  lead  precipitate. 

3^.  Yniiueiice  of  Subacetate  of  Lead  and  Other 
Substances  upon  the  Suj^rars  and  Optically  Ac- 
tive Non-sugars  1  in  Beet  Products. — Sucrose.— The 
rotatory  power  of  sucrose  in  aqueous  solution  is  not  modified 
by  subacetate  oi  lead  under  the  conditions  which  usually 
obtain  in  analysis.  In  the  presence  of  a  very  large  excess 
of  the  lead  salt  there  is  a  slight  diminution  in  the  rotatory 
power;  there  iy  a  decided  diminution  in  alcoholic  solution 
in  the  presence  of  the  lead  salt. 

Farnsteiner^  made  the  following  observations  relative  to 
the  influence  of  certain  inorganic  salts: 

"  With  a  constant  relation  of  sugar  to  water,  the  chlorides 
of  barium,  strontium,  and  calcium  cause  a  decrease  in 
the  rotation  which  continues  to  decrease  as  the  salt  is 
increased;  calcium  chloride  causes  a  decrease,  but  when 
%he  salt  reaches  a   maximum    further   addition  causes  an 


*  The  beet  and  beet  products  contain  other  substances  which  are  opti- 
cally active  in  addition  to  those  given  here,  but  the  quantities  present  are 
exceedingly  small  and  would  not  appreciably  influence  the  analytical 
results.  The  following  optically  active  substances  are  also  present :  tar- 
taric acid,  leucine,  coniferine,  and  cholesterine. 

2  Berichte  deut.  chem.  Gesel.^  33,  isjo\  Journ.  Chem.  Soc,  ^O,  283. 


SUGAR  ANALYSIS.      OPTICAL   METHODS.  39 

increase  which  finally  exceeds  that  of  the  pure  sugar 
solution. 

"  If  the  relation  of  the  sugar  to  that  of  the  salt  be  kept 
constant,  it  is  found  that  the  addition  of  water  causes  in  all 
cases  an  increase  in  the  specific  rotatory  power,  i.e.,  the 
action  of  the  salts  is  lessened.  The  specific  rotatory  power 
is  almost  unaffected  by  varying  the  quantity  of  sugar  with  a 
constant  relation  between  the  salt  and  water.  The  chlorides 
of  lithium,  sodium,  and  potassium  behave  in  a  similar 
manner. 

"An  examination  of  the  action  of  the  same  quantities  of 
different  salts  shows  that  in  the  case  of  strontium,  calcium, 
and  magnesium  the  depression  varies  inversely  with  the 
molecular  weight,  and  that  the  product  of  the  two  quanti- 
ties is  approximately  a  constant.  Barium  chloride  does  not 
act  in  the  same  manner,  but  the  chlorides  of  the  alkalis 
show  a  similar  relation.  The  relation,  however,  only  holds 
good  within  each  group  of  chlorides  and  not  for  two  salts 
belonging  to  different  groups." 

The  rotatory  power  of  sucrose  in  water  or  alcohol  solu- 
tion is  not  modified  by  the  presence  of  nitrates  of  sodium 
and  potassium  even  when  the  quantity  of  the  nitrate 
amounts  to  as  much  as  50  per  cent  of  the  sucrose  (E. 
Gravier). 

In  investigating  the  influence  of  the  lead  precipitate 
(33),  Sachs  found  that  the  presence  of  acetate  of  potas- 
sium very  perceptibly  diminished  the  rotation.  The  diminu- 
tion was  also  noticeable  with  the  sulphates  of  potassium 
and  lead,  but  was  not  so  marked  with  the  corresponding 
sodium  salts.  Sachs  also  states  that  he  has  demon- 
strated that  citrate  of  potassium,  carbonate  of  sodium, 
and  several  other  salts  have  an  influence  analogous  to  that 
of  the  acetates.  The  presence  of  free  acetic  acid  reduces 
this  influence  in  part.  Sachs,  in  the  same  paper,  urges  that 
the  use  of  tannic  acid  in  decolorizing  solutions  is  very  objec- 
tionable, on  account  of  the  volume  of  the  precipitate  formed 
with  the  lead. 

Dextrose. — The  rotatory  power  of  dextrose  is  not  modi- 
fied, or,  if  at  all,  but  very  slightly,  under  ordinary  analytical 


40         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

conditions  by  either  the  subacetate  or  the  neutral  acetate 
of  lead.     See  also  Invert-sugar. 

Levulose. — The  rotatory  power  of  levulose  is  very  greatly 
diminished  by  the  presence  of  subacetate  of  lead.  Under 
certain  conditions,  a  levulosate  of  lead  is  probably  formed. 
This  levulosate  is  precipitated  in  the  presence  of  certain 
chlorides,  in  quantities  more  or  less  considerable  according 
to  the  relative  proportions  of  the  salts,  lead,  and  levulose. 
There  is  no  precipitation  by  the  normal  acetate  of  lead 
(Gill,  Pellet,  Edson,  Spencer). 

Invert-sugar.  Dextrose  and  Levulose. — In  the  presence 
of  the  salts  formed  in  the  decomposition  of  the  subacetate 
of  lead,  dextrose  and  levulose  are  precipitated  in  part 
(Pellet,  Edson).  The  influence  of  the  basic  lead  salt  on  the 
rotatory  power  of  levulose  {see  above),  or  the  formation 
of  a  levulosate  of  lead  of  little  optical  activity,  gives  undue 
prominence  to  the  dextrose  and  results  in  a  plus  error.  In 
1885  the  author  recommended  the  acidulation  of  solutions 
containing  invert-sugar  with  acetic  acid.  This  restores  the 
normal  or  nearly  the  normal  rotatory  power  to  the  levu- 
lose. 

Acetic  acid  slightly  lowers  the  rotatory  power  of  invert- 
sugar;  hydrochloric  acid  has  an  opposite  effect.  Sodic 
acetate  and  sodic  chloride  increase  the  rotation  (H.  A. 
Weber  and  Wm.  McPherson).  Sulphuric  and  hydrochloric 
acids  increase  the  rotation;  oxalic  acid  has  no  effect. 
The  rotation  increases  as  the  quantity  of  mineral  acid  is 
increased.' 

Raffi,nose. — The  rotatory  power  of  raffinose  is  greatly 
diminished  in  concentrated  solution  by  subacetate  of  lead 
in  large  quantity,  and  not  at  all  in  dilute  solution,  especially 
in  the  presence  of  sucrose.  The  normal  rotation  is  restored 
by  slight  acidulation  with  acetic  acid  (Pellet).  Raffinose 
is  precipitated  by  highly  basic  subacetate  of  lead  as  readily 
as  with  ammoniacal  acetate  of  lead    solution  (Svoboda). 

Asparagine. — Not  precipitable  by  subacetate  of  lead,  but 
is  rendered  dextrorotatory,  instead  of  Isevorotatory,  by  the 

*  Gubbe,  Bulletin  Assoc.  Chimistes  de  France^  3,  131. 


SUGA.R   ANALYSIS.      CHEMICAL  METHODS.         41 

lead  salt.  Asparagine  is  insoluble  in  alcohol,  and  in  the 
presence  of  acetic  acid  is  inactive  (Pellet).  In  neutral  and 
alkaline  solution,  laevorotatory;  in  presence  of  a  mineral 
acid,  dextrorotatory;  in  the  presence  of  acetic  acid  the 
rotation  is  diminished  and  with  lo  molecules  of  the  acid 
becomes  o°,  and  with  additional  acid  dextrorotatory 
(Degener). 

Aspartic  Acid. — From  asparagine  by  the  action  of  lime; 
the  lime  salt  is  soluble.  In  alkaline  solutions  aspartates 
are  laevorotatory,  and  acid  solutions  dextrorotatory ;  aspar- 
tic acid  is  precipitated  by  subacetate  of  lead. 

Glutamic  acid  is  dextrorotatory,  and  in  the  presence  of 
subacetate  of  lead  it  becomes  laevorotatory.  Not  precipi- 
tated by  lead  acetate  except  in  the  presence  of  alcohol. 

Malic  acid  is  laevorotatory.  The  artificial  malic  acid  is 
optically  inactive.  Malic  acid  is  precipitated  by  subacetate 
of  lead. 

Pectine  ajid  parapectine  are  dextrorotatory  and  are  both 
precipitated  by  subacetate  of  lead,  and  the  latter  by  normal 
acetate  of  lead. 

36a.  Bone-black  Error. — The  use  of  bone-black  or  animal  chav- 
coal  is  to  be  avoided  when  possible,  since  it  absorbs  sucrose.  The 
degreeof  absorption  varies  with  the  charcoal  from  different  sources. 

Where  the  use  of  this  substance  is  necessary  for  bleaching 
dark -colored  samples  it  should  be  used  in  small  quantities,  pref- 
erably placing  about  3  grams  of  a  finely  powdered  char  in  a 
filter.  The  solution  should  be  poured  onto  the  charcoal  in  suc- 
cessive portions,  each  of  which  is  allowed  to  drain  from  the 
char  before  adding  the  next.  The  first  five  or  six  portions  of  the 
filtrate  should  be  rejected  and  subsequent  fractions  utilized  in 
the  analysis,  as  by  this  time  the  char  can  absorb  no  more  sucrose. 

Many  chemists  advise  adding  from  0.5  to  3  grams  of  finely 
powdered  dry  bone  black,  per  100  cc.  of  solution,  to  the  material 
in  the  sugar-flask.  After  shaking  the  mixture  thoroughly  and 
letting  it  stand  a  few  minutes,  the  char  is  removed  by  filtration. 
The  charcoal  should  previously  be  tested  with  a  solution  of 
known  sucrose  content  to  ascertain  its  absorbent  power,  that  a 
correction  may  be  applied. 

36b.  Temperature  Errors  in  Polarizations. — According  to 


42         HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

Wiley  *  a  correction  should  be  made  for  errors  due  to  variations 
of  temperature  of  0.03  per  cent,  per  degree  above  or  below  the 
normal  temperature  (17^°  C.  for  the  older  and  20°  C.  for  recent 
models  of  polariscopes).  This  correction  is  to  be  added  for  tem- 
peratures above  the  normal  and  sub^acted  for  those  below  it. 
This  correction  is  designed  to  include  all  temperature  errors,  viz: 
changes  in  the  quartz  wedges,  tube  length,  concentration  and 
specific  rotation.  Wiechmann  ^  and  others  deny  the  advisability 
of  Wiley's  correction. 

Since  the  rotation  of  quartz  is  slightly  changed  by  variations 
of  temperature,  it  may  be  well  to  conduct  polariscopic  work  re- 
quiring great  exactitude,  as  in  research  work,  at  the  normal 
temperature  of  the  instrument. 

CHEMICAL   METHODS. 

37.  Detenu  illation  of  Sucrose  by  Alkaline 
Copper  Solution. — Dissolve  a  weighed  quantity  of  the 
material  in  water  and  dilute  to  50  cc.  Invert  by  means  of 
hydrochloric  acid  as  described  in  89.  Transfer  to  a  litre 
flask,  cool,  neutralize  with  caustic  soda,  and  dilute  to  1000 
cc.  The  quantity  of  material  to  be  used  depends  upon  the 
method  of  further  procedure  selected. 

It  is,  however,  convenient  to  use  5  grams  or  a  multi- 
ple of  5  grams  and  to  dilute  to  a  multiple  of  100  cc.  in 
order  that  the  table  of  reciprocals  on  page  294  may  be 
used  for  the  calculations  if  a  volumetric  method  be 
selected. 

Determine  percentage  of  invert-sugar  by  one  of  the 
methods  in  72  or  73.  Multiply  the  per  cent  invert-sugar 
by  .95,  since  sucrose  on  inversion  yields  invert-sugar  in  the 
ratio  100  :  95. 

38.  Determination  of  Sucrose  in  the  Presence 
of  Keducing  Sugars. — Determine  the  reducing  sugar 
before  inversion  and  after,  as  indicated  in  37. 

Calculation, — Per  cent  reducing  sugar  after  inversion  — 
per  cent  reducing  sugar  before  inversion  X  -95  =  the 
required  per  cent  sucrose. 

1  Ckjmptes-renduIV  CoQgreslut.  de  Chimie  Appliqa^e,  2,  143. 

2/6wi.  1.  143. 


SAMPLIKG  AND  AVEEAQING.  43 


GENERAL   ANALYTICAL   WORK. 

SAMPLING   AND    AVERAGING. 

39.  General  Remarks  on  Sampling  and 
Averaging. — Accurate  sampling  is  essential  to  successful 
chemical  control.  The  samples  must  be  strictly  represent- 
ative of  the  average  composition  of  the  substance  or  sub- 
sequent analytical  work  will  be  wasted. 

The  method  of  sampling  should  be  by  aliquot  parts. 
This  consists  in  drawing  a  definite  quantity  from  each  lot 
of  the  material,  which  must  be  the  same  aliquot  part  in 
each  case. 

Example. — Given  four  lots  of  sirup,  A^  B,  C,  and  D,  from 
which  an  average  sample  is  to  be  drawn.  Let  A  =  looo, 
B  =  800,  C=  500,  and  Z>  =  200.  Each  of  these  lots  differs  in 
analysis.  Manifestly  a  mixture  of  equal  parts  of  A,  B,  C, 
and  D  would  not  be  a  true  average  sample,  but  a  mixture 
of  10  parts  of  ^,  8  parts  of  B,  5  parts  of  C,  and  2  parts  of 
D  would  be  a  representative  sample. 

In  calculating  an  average  analysis  from  a  large  number 
of  analyses  the  same  principle  must  be  applied. 

Example. — Given  the  following  per  cents  of  sucrose, 
representing  the  analyses  of  the  beets  each  d^y  for  a  week: 
\l%\  14%;  13^;  14.5^;  15^;  15.5^;  i6^-  The  following  num- 
bers of  diffusers  of  beets  were  worked  each  day  :  168;  144" 
140;  150;  165;  160;  145 — a  total  of  1072.  Required  the  mean 
percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  beets. 

Multiply  each  analysis  by  the  number  of  diffusers  of  beets 
it  represents,  and  divide  the  sum  of  the  products  by  the 
total  number  of  diffusers  worked. 


44         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


15  X  168  =  2520 
14  X  144  =  2016 

15,806 

~ =  14.74  = 

1,072   ^  '^ 

13  X  140  =  1820 

the  mean  per  cent 

14.5  X  150  =  2175 

sucrose  for  the  week 

15   X  165  =  2475 

15.5  X  160  =  2480 

16  X  145  =  2320 

1,072    15,806 

It  is  obvious  that  the  weight  of  juice  obtained  per  day,  or 
the  weight  of  the  beets  worked,  may  be  used  as  a  factor  in 
the  above  calculation  and  strictly  accurate  averages  secured. 

Usually,  however,  if  the  diffusers  receive  practically 
uniform  charges  of  beets,  the  average  analysis,  as  calcu- 
lated above,  will  approximate  the  true  mean  very  closely. 

40.  Sampling  Beets  in  the  Field.— Beets  grow- 
ing side  by  side  may  differ  greatly  in  sugar  content;  the 
same  is  true  of  beets  grown  within  a  few  feet  of  one  an- 
other as  well  as  from  widely  different  parts  of  the  field. 
This  indicates  the  difficulty  if  not  impossibility  of  selecting 
a  strictly  representative  sample.  In  point  of  fact,  samples 
selected  in  the  field  only  approximately  represent  the 
general  average. 

A  convenient  plan  for  sampling  in  the  field  is  as  follows: 
When  drawing  the  beets  to  the  factory,  take  a  definite 
number  at  random  from  each  load  until  all  the  beets  have 
been  hauled;  unite  the  subsamplesand  proceed  as  indicated 
farther  on. 

If  the  sample  is  to  be  taken  after  the  beets  have  been 
lifted  and  placed  in  piles,  select  a  number  of  beets  from 
each  pile  as  above,  or  from  every  second  or  third  pile,  etc., 
and  unite  the  subsamples.  If  the  roots  be  still  in  the 
ground,  lift  a  beet  at  definite  intervals  in  the  row,  from 
every  second,  third,  or  fourth  row  as  may  be  deemed  best, 
and  unite  the  subsamples  as  before. 

The  importance  of  the  sample  and  the  size  of  the  field 
must  determine  the  number  of  beets  to  be  drawn,  but  this 
number  should  in  any  case  be  as  large  as  practicable. 

Having  selected  the  beets,  they  should  be  sorted  into 
three  or  four  classes  according  to  size  and  ranged  in  rows 


SAMPLING   AND   AVERAGING.  45 

in  a  convenient  place,  protected  from  the  rays  of  the  sun. 
The  number  of  beets  is  now  reduced  by  subsampling,  tak- 
ing from  each  row  in  proportion  to  the  nufrtber  of  beets  in 
the  row.  For  example,  take  every  fifth  or  every  tenth  beet 
in  the  row.  If  the  number  of  beets  drawn  in  this  way  be 
too  large,  the  subsample  should  be  rearranged  in  rows  and 
again  subsampled. 

41.  Subsaniplin^  of  Beets  for  Analysis  in  Fix- 
ing the  Purchase  Price.— As  will  be  shown  (p.  177), 
the  sucrose  is  not  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the  beet, 
and  further  the  juice  obtained  by  pressure  from  the  same 
sample  varies  in  composition  with  the  pressure  exerted 
and  the  state  of  division  of  the  pulp.  The  more  finely 
divided  the  pulp,  and  the  heavier  the  pressure,  the  nearer 
the  juice  obtained  approaches  the  mean  juice  in  composition. 

The  proportion  of  juice  in  the  beet  varies  from  sample  to 
sample,  and  often  materially  from  the  average  (95^) ;  hence 
the  practice  of  employing  a  coefficient,  e.g.  .95,  to  calculate 
the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  beet  from  the  analysis  of 
the  juice,  should  be  discouraged.  In  the  course  of  an  en- 
tire season  this  may  be  just  to  the  manufacturer,  but  un- 
doubtedly is  an  injustice  in  many  cases  to  the  producer  of 
the  beets. 

If  the  indirect  method  of  analysis  be  employed,  the  same 
models  of  rasp  and  press  should  be  used  by  the  chemists  of 
the  buyer  and  the  seller.  Further,  the  conditions  of  sam- 
pling and  analysis  should  be  the  same  in  both  laboratories. 

The  beets  should  be  divided  longitudinally  into  quarters 
or  eighths,  and  an  entire  segment  should  be  rasped.  This 
insures  the  reduction  of  a  portion  of  the  beet  in  propor- 
tion to  its  size. 

In  many  factories  it  is  the  custom  to  remove  a  small  plug 
"or  cylinder  from  each  beet  for  the  analysis.  Owing  to 
the  unequal  distribution  of  the  sugar  in  the  beet  this 
method  cannot  be  depended  upon  to  give  a  strictlj^  repre- 
sentative sample,  but  experience  has  shown  that  the  varia- 
tions from  the  true  average  sample  are  not  great,  provided 
the  cylinder  be  taken  in  the  proper  direction.  The  method 
and  direction  of  removing  the  cylinder  are  indicated  in  Fig. 
18.     The  boring-rasp  (Keil  and  Dolle)  is  well  adapted  for 


46 


HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


removing  a  sample  of  pulp  from  each  of  a  number  of  beets. 


Fig 


This  machine,  which  is  shown  in  Fig.  19,  may  be  used  in 
Pellet's  instantaneous  diffusion  method  (B2). 


Fig   19. 
The  beet  is   pressed  carefully  against  the  rasping-tool, 
which  revolves  at  the  rate  of  2000  revolutions  per  minute. 


Fig.  20. 
An  opening  in  the  rasp,  which  is  sh«wn  in  detail  i»  Fig.  20, 
permits  the  pulp  to  pass  into  the  tool,  whish  is  hollow,  and 


SAMPLING  AKD  AVERAQIKG.  47 

thence  to  the  box  shown  in  the  figure.  Practice  is  neces- 
sary in  using  this  machine  in  order  to  produce  a  suitable 
pulp.  The  pulp  from  the  first  perforation  should  be  re- 
jected. 

It  is  evident  that  this  machine  does  not  remove  a  portion 
of  pulp  bearing  a  fixed  relation  to  the  size  of  the  beet.  This 
is  essential  in  order  that  the  analysis  may  represent  the 
mean  composition  of  the  roots.  The  following  method  of 
sampling  has  been  proposed  by  Kaiser'  to  obviate  this 
difficulty. 

The  form  of  the  beet  is  a  cone  the  height  of  which  is 
approximately  three  times  the  radius  of  the  base,  hence  its 
volume  is  calculated  by  the  formula  nr^  =  volume  ;  in  other 
words,  the  volume  of  the  beet  increases  as  the  cube  of  the 
radius  of  the  base.  For  example,  we  have  three  beets  whose 
radii  are  4  :  5  : 6;  their  volumes  are  then  in  the  ratio  4^ :  5' :  6', 
or  64  :  125  :  216.  The  beet  whose  radius  is  4  should  be  per- 
forated once  ;  the  second,  whose  radius  is  5,  should  be  per- 
forated (VY)  2  times,  and  the  third,  having  a  radius  of  6, 
should  be  perforated  (Vt)  3  times,  and  so  on.  Kaiser 
uses  a  scale  which  indicates  the  number  of  perforations 
to  be  made  in  each  beet.  Such  a  scale  may  easily  be  made 
which  will  show  at  a  glance  the  number  of  times  each  beet 
should  be  perforated. 

This  method  of  sampling  gives  approximately  correct  re- 
sults, even  if  the  relation  between  the  radius  of  the  base  of 
the  beet  and  its  length  be  different  from  Kaiser's  numbers. 
When  practicable,  in  order  to  obtain  a  thoroughly  reliable 
sample,  it  is  advisable  to  divide  the  beets  longitudinally 
and  reduce  an  entire  segment  of  each  to  a  pulp  suitable  for 
a  direct  method  of  analysis. 

After  the  sample  of  washed  beets  is  received  in  the  lab- 
oratory its  weight  should  be  noted,  that  a  correction  may 
be  made  for  the  loss  of  weight  by  drying  prior  to  the  an- 
alysis. 

42.  Sainpliiij?  Beets  at  the  Diffusion-battery. 
— Samples  of  beets  can  be  drawn  at  the  battery  with  mod- 
erate certainty  of  obtaining  a  fair  average.     In  the  various 

*  Deutsche  Zuckerindustrte,  Nov.   i8q6. 


48         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAK-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

manipulations  from  the  field  to  the  factory,  including  the 
transport  and  washing,  the  beets  are  pretty  thoroughly 
mixed  ;  hence  if  a  beet  be  taken  at  random  at  regular  and 
frequent  intervals,  the  united  subsamples  so  drawn  will  be 
very  nearly  of  the  mean  composition  of  the  beets  entering 
the  sugar-house.  It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  sample  beets 
in  this  way,  since  the  method  given  in  the  following  para- 
graph is  simpler  and  the  sample  drawn  is  more  satisfactory. 

43.  Sampling-  the  Fresh  Cossettes  at  the 
Diffusion-battery.— The  proper  time  to  sample  the 
beets  is  after  they  have  been  sliced.  A  handful  of  the  cos- 
settes should  be  taken  from  the  elevator  or  drag  at  regular 
intervals  and  stored  in  a  covered  receptacle.  Large  granite- 
or  agate-ware  pails  are  very  convenient  for  the  purpose,  as 
they  can  be  easily  inspected  as  to  their  cleanliness.  It  is 
not  advisable  to  use  a  mechanical  device  to  divert  a  part  of 
the  cossettes  to  the  pail,  since  the  sample  so  obtained  is  not 
usually  a  fair  average. 

The  samples  should  be  drawn  at  very  frequent  intervalsp 
if  practicable  every  two  or  three  minutes.  In  practice  it  is 
more  convenient  to  take  a  small  portion  of  the  cuttings 
shortly  after  they  begin  to  fall  into  the  diffuser,  a  second 
when  the  diffuser  is  half  filled,  and  a  third  before  directing 
the  cuttings  into  the  next  diffuser.  The  sample  obtained 
in  the  manner  described  should  be  taken  to  the  laboratory 
for  immediate  treatment.  It  is  perfectly  reliable,  and  if 
the  beets  be  weighed  immediately  before  entering  the 
cutter,  it  may  enter  into  the  chemical  control  of  the  diffusion. 
It  is  necessary  to  keep  the  sample-pails  scrupulously  clean, 
using  boiling  water  in  washing  them  ;  they  should  be  large 
enough  to  contain  the  subsamples  from  two  or  three  hours' 
work. 

44.  Sampling  the  Exhausted  Cossettes.— The 
exhausted  cossettes  should  be  sampled  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  fresh  cuttings.  1  his  sample  may  be  taken  from  the 
elevator  leading  to  the  pulp-presses,  and  should  be  stored 
in  a  covered  galvanized-iron  pail  having  the  bottom  per- 
forated for  drainage. 

45.  Sampling  Waste  Waters.— A  definite  volume 
of  the  waste  water  should   be  drawn  from  each  diffuser 


SAMPLING   AND   AVERAGING.  49 

and  these  subsamples  stored  in  a  loosely  stoppered  bottle, 
with  corrosive  sublimate  as  a  preservative. 

46.  Sampling  Diffusion-juice,  etc. — In  sampling 
diffusion-juice,  a  definite  volume  should  be  drawn  from 
each  measuring  tankful.  This  volume  once  decided  upon 
should  not  be  changed  during  the  sampling  period  except 
there  be  a  change  in  the  volume  of  juice  drawn  into  the 
tank,  and  then  the  sample  should  be  changed  in  a  like 
proportion.  This  is  not  easily  accomplished,  except  by  the 
use  of  an  automatic  sampler. 

In  sampling  purified  juices  the  same  method  should  be 
observed. 

47.  Sampling  Filter  Press-cake.— In  sampling 
the  press-cake,  small  portions  should  be  taken  systemati- 
cally from  different  parts  of  the  press,  bearing  in  mind  that 
parts  of  the  cake  contain  more  moisture  than  others, 
according  to  the  kind  of  press.  The  number  of  presses 
filled  should  be  recorded  for  use  in  estimating  the  weight  of 
the  press-cake  and  in  averaging  the  analyses. 

A  very  simple  and  satisfactory  instrument  for  sampling 
filter  press-cake  is  made  from  a  small  brass  tube  with  a 
cutting  edge  at  one  end.  Several  cork-borers  of  the  same 
diameter  are  more  convenient  than  a  single  brass  tube  for 
this  purpose. 

In  using  this  instrument  small  cylinders  of  the  press-cake 
are  cut  out  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  one  would  bore 
a  hole  through  a  cork.  The  subsamples  are  left  in  the 
tubes  until  a  sufficient  quantity  of  material  has  been  col- 
lected. Each  subsample  pushes  its  predecessor  farther  into 
the  tube. 

48.  Sampling  Sirups. — A  method  is  recommended 
in  10  for  the  measurement  of  sirups.  In  this  method 
gauge-tubes,  similar  to  the  water-gauges  on  steam-boilers, 
are  used.  The  sirup  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  in  the 
tanks  before  admitting  it  to  the  tubes.  If  several  tanks  be 
used,  a  volume  of  sirup  should  be  drawn  from  each  in- 
cluded in  the  analytical  period,  as  advised  in  lO. 

49.  The  Preservation  of  Samples.— The  sample 
of  diffusion-juice  is  effectually  preserved  from  fermentation 
by  the  addition  of  subacetate  of  lead.     It  maybe  preserved 


50  HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

in  this  way  several  weeks  or  even  months  without  percepti- 
ble change  in  the  sucrose  content.  The  most  convenient 
preservative  is  mercuric  chloride,  i  part  to  5000  or  10,000 
parts  of  juice.  It  is  not  advisable  to  store  juices  treated 
with  mercuric  chloride  for  a  longer  period  than  24  hours. 
The  advantage  of  the  mercuric  chloride  is  that  it  permits  the 
usual  determinations,  viz.,  sucrose,  total  solids,  ash,  etc., 
to  be  made  with  the  same  sample,  thus  obviating  the  neces- 
sity of  drawing  a  second  sample  as  is  usual  when  subacetate 
of  lead  is  used. 

In  many  houses  it  is  the  practice  to  store  the  samples  a 
week  before  analysis,  uniting  those  drawn  from  day  to 
day.  In  such  cases  it  is  advisable  to  determine  the  density, 
solids,  and  ash  from  day  to  day,  and  store  a  portion  of  the 
juice  with  subacetate  of  lead  for  the  sucrose  determination. 
The  use  of  mercuric  chloride  simplifies  the  work,  and  as  it 
is  used  in  such  minute  quantities  it  does  not  perceptibly 
affect  the  accuracy  of  the  results. 

When  subacetate  of  lead  is  employed  as  a  preservative,  it 
should  be  added  in  the  proportions  required  for  the  clari- 
fication of  the  juice,  i.e.,  about  2-3  cc.  of  the  concentrated 
solution  (207).  It  is  convenient  to  use  the  concentrated 
lead  solution,  and,  when  preparing  for  the  polarization,  to 
measure  the  mixed  juice  and  lead  solution  and  add  suffi- 
cient water  to  increase  the  volume  to  110%  that  of  the  juice. 
The  per  cent  sucrose  is  then  readily  calculated  by  the  use 
of  Schmitz'  table(p.285)from  the  degree  Brix  of  the  juice 
and  the  polariscopic  reading. 

The  preservative  must  be  thoroughly  mixed  with  juice 
as  each  portion  is  added.  This  is  easily  accomplished 
when  an  automatic  sampler  is  employed  by  letting  the  de- 
livery-tube dip  to  the  bottom  of  the  storage-bottle.  The 
mouth  of  the  bottle  should  be  loosely  plugged  with  cotton. 
When  the  sampling  is  by  hand,  it  is  advisable  to  use  a  wide- 
mouthed  jar,  provided  with  a  cover,  for  the  storage  of  the 
juice,  and  mix  frequently.  This  facilitates  the  collection 
of  the  subsamples  without  the  use  of  a  funnel. 

No  preservative  is  required  for  sugar-house  products 
other  than  the  waste  waters,  juices,  and  sirups. 

50.  Automatic  Samplings  of  Juices. — Automatic 


SAMPLING    AND    AVERAGING. 


51 


samplers  have  for  their  object  not  only  the  relief  of  the 
chemist  from  this  duty,  but  the  drawing  of  samples  which 
are  probably  more  reliable  than  those  obtained  in  any 
other  way. 

This  problem  is  not  a  simple  one  in  the  case  of  sampling 
diffusion-juices  at  the  measuring-tank.  It  is  evident  from 
the  method  of  conducting  the  diffusion,  that  the  juice  re- 
ceived into  the  measuring-tank  is  not  of  uniform  composi- 
tion. A  sample  drawn  from  the  bottom  of  the  tank  will 
differ  slightly  from  one  drawn  at  the  centre  or  near  the  top. 

Coombs'  Automatic  Sampler. — The  apparatus  shown  in 
Fig.  21   is  the  invention  of  Mr.  F.  E.  Coombs,  Chemist  of 


JUICE  PIPE 


A.— i  TO  I  INCH  VALVE. 
B,— STRONG  RUBBER  TUBE  CON- 
NECTING PIPE  LEADING  FR0m"A"wITH 
C,— A  GLASS  T-TUBE|tO  7  INCHES 
INSIDE  DIAMETER. 

D,  — SHORT  ARM  OF  T.  FROM  WHICH 
THE  SAMPLE  IS  TO  BE  LED  INTO  AN 
APPROPRIATE  RECEIVER. 


Fig.  21. 

the  Shadyside  Plantation,  Louisiana,  and  of  the  Esperanza 
Estate,  Trinidad,  B.  W.  I.,  throfligh  whose  courtesy  this  de- 
scription and  illustration  were  supplied  the  author. 

This  apparatus  is  applicable  to  the  sampling  of  liquids 
which  are  not  too  viscous  to  flow  through  small  pipes.  It 
may  be  used  in  sampling  juice  and  sirup,  and  has  proved 
quite  reliable  in  practical  work.     It  has  the  advantage  of 


52         HANDBOOK  FOB  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

being  quickly  set  up  wherever  there  is  provision  for  re- 
turning a  small  quantity  of  overflow  liquor  to  the  tank. 

Attempts  to  draw  continuous  samples  of  liquor  from 
pipes  by  means  of  a  small  valve,  depending  upon  the  valve 
to  regulate  the  flow  of  the  sample,  have  usually  failed, 
since  the  valve  must  be  so  nearly  closed  that  fine  pulp  in 
the  juice  or,  in  the  case  of  sirup,  a  mere  change  from  a  low 
to  a  high  density  clogs  the  opening  and  stops  the  sampling. 

The  flow  must  be  sufficient  to  keep  the  valve  free  from 
obstruction.  By  the  use  of  a  T-tube,  as  shown  in  the 
figure,  a  strong  current  of  liquor  can  be  kept  flowing 
through  the  pipe,  and  at  the  same  time  a  small,  continuous, 
easily  regulated  drip  can  be  diverted  into  the  sample- 
bottle. 

In  the  figure,  the  apparatus  is  shown  as  arranged  for 
drawing  a  sample  of  juice  as  it  passes  from  the  measuring- 
tank  to  the  carbonatation.  It  is  advisable  to  pass  the  juice 
through  a  distributing-tank  in  which  the  sampler  is  lo- 
cated, otherwise  an  arrangement  must  be  provided  for  con- 
ducting the  overflow  to  the  carbonatation-tanks. 

The  sample-bottle  at  D  rests  upon  a  wooden  shelf  hung 
inside  the  tank  by  hangers  of  strap-iron  which  hook  over 
the  edge.  It  is  apparent  that  when  Z>,  the  short  arm  oi  the 
T-tube,  is  in  its  lowest  position  it  will  give  its  maximuna 
discharge.  By  rotating  the  T-tube,  which  is  of  glass,  in 
the  strong  rubber  connecting-tube  B  to  the  position  Z?',  the 
drip  will  cease,  all  the  liquor  passing  out  at  C,  The  posi- 
tion giving  a  sample  of  the  required  volume  is  readily 
ascertained  by  experiment.  The  sample,  if  juice,  is  pre- 
served as  indicated  in  49  ;  sirups  require  no  preservative. 

With  well-strained  juice  the  drip  is  regular  and  there  is 
rarely  trouble  from  clogging. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  arrangement  of  the  sampler,  that 
the  samples  drawn,  whether  of  juice  or  sirup,  may  be  de- 
pended upon  as  being  representative  of  the  composition  of 
the  entire  volume  of  the  liquor. 

It  is  necessary  to  connect  the  small  pipe  at  the  under 
side  of  the  juice  or  sirup  main,  to  insure  a  continuous  flow, 
even  when  but  little  liquor  is  passing.  The  main  should 
be  tapped  at  its  highest  level,  or  on  the  discharge  side  of 


SAMPLING  AND  AVERAGING. 


53 


that  level,  to  avoid  drawing  liquor  left  in  the  pipe  when 
the  flow  is  temporarily  stopped.  The  valve  on  the  sampling- 
pipe  should  be  placed  as  close  as  possible  to  the  point 
where  the  main  is  entered. 

The  valve  A  should  always  be  opened  as  widely  as  pos- 
sible to  prevent  clogging,  but  this  must  be  regulated  so 
that  the  current  through  the 
main  arm  of  the  T-tube  shall 
not  be  too  swift,  since  it  will 
then  act  as  an  aspirator. 
For  this  reason  it  is  advis- 
able to  avoid  extending  the 
discharge-tube  Z>  below  the 
level  of  the  sample  in  the 
bottle,  otherwise  the  entire 
contents  may  be  lost. 

Horsiti' Dean's  Automatic 
Sampler. — This  apparatus, 
shown  in  Fig.  22,  consists  of 
a  three-way  cock  for  con- 
necting a  small  standpipe 
alternately  with  the  measur- 
ing-tank and  the  sample- 
bottle,  and  is  operated  by  a 
suitable  float. 

This  sampler  is  placed  in- 
side the  measuring-tank. 
It  is  so  arranged  that  the 
volume  of  the  sample  drawn 
is  proportionate  to  the 
quantity  of  juice  in  the  tank. 
The  discharge-pipe  from  the 
diffusion-battery  should 
enter  the  measuring-tank  at 
the  bottom.  The  inlet  to 
the  sampler  should  be  di- 
rectly over  the  inlet  from 
the  battery,  if  practicable, 
projecting  into  the  pipe.  If 
this    precaution  be  not  ob-  ^^^'  ^^" 

served  the  sample  drawn  will  not  be  a  iair  average. 


54         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

2t  is  obvious  that  this  sampler  is  not  applicable  in  sam- 
pling sirups. 

51.  Sampling  Sugars.— Sugars  are  best  sampled 
by    means    of    a  "trier"  or   sound   (Fig.    23).       This   in- 


FlG.  23. 

strument  is  so  constructed  that  it  may  be  plunged 
into  a  quantity  of  sugar  and,  on  withdrawal,  remove  a 
sample  representative  of  the  sugar  through  which  it  has 
passed.  The  trier  should  be  long  enough  to  pass  from  end 
to  end  of  the  package  of  sugar,  diagonally  if  necessary. 
The  chemist  must  be  guided  largely  by  the  grade  of  the 
sugar  and  the  method  of  packing  in  drawing  the  sample. 
A  portion  should  be  dra^yn  from  every  third,  fifth,  etc., 
package  according  to  the  size  of  the  lot.  The  large  sample 
should  be  well  mixed,  andiall  lumps  broken,  then  subsam- 
pled  by  quartering. 


k 


DENSITY   DETERMINATIONS.  ^5 


DENSITY    DETERMINATIONS. 
APPARATUS  AND  METHODS. 

52.  Notes  on  Density. — The  expression  "density" 
as  used  in  this  work  is  synonymous  with  "  specific  gravity," 
and  is  employed  for  brevity  and  convenience.  Sugar 
chemists  also  frequently  term  the  degree  Brix  or  the  degree 
Baume  the  "  density  "  of  the  liquor.  While  this  use  of  the 
word  "  density"  is  not  strictly  correct,  it  is  sanctioned  by 
general  usage. 

53.  The  Brix  and  Baume  Scales.— The  degree 
Brix  is  the  percentage  by  weight  of  sucrose  in  a  pure  sugar 
solution.  It  is  customary  to  consider  the  degree  Brix  as 
the  percentage  of  total  solid  matter  in  the  solution,  and  it 
is  thus  applied  in  sugar  analysis.  It  is  this  feature  of  the 
Brix  spindle  which  renders  it  more  convenient  than  the 
Baum6  for  sugar-house  purposes.    . 

The  Baume  scale  has  no  convenient  relation  with  the 
percentage  composition  of  any  of  the  sugar-house  products. 
The  point  to  which  it  sinks  in  distilled  water  at  the  stand- 
ard temperature  is  marked  zero  ;  the  corresponding  point 
in  pure  sulphuric  acid  of  1.8427  specific  gravity  is  marked 
66  degrees.  Baume  spindles  are  also  graduated  for  den- 
sities above  and  below  the  limits  mentioned,  but  this  range 
is  all  that  is  ever  required  in  sugar  analysis. 

There  has  been  much  confusion  in  the  graduation  of 
Baum6  spindles.  The  graduations  should  be  checked  by 
means  of  splutions  of  known  density  and  under  standard 
conditions  (55).  The  use  of  these  spindles  is  now  com- 
paratively limited  in  sugar-house  practice. 

54.  Automatic  Apparatus  for  the  Determi- 
nation of  the  Density  of  the  Juice.— The  density 
\h  usually  ascertained  by  means  of  a  hydrometer,  an  instru- 
ment commonly  termed  a  "  spindle  "  in  sugar-house  practice. 
These  instruments  are  usually  graduated  to  degrees  Brix  or 
Baum6.  The  readings  on  the  spindle  are  converted  into  terms 
of  specific  gravity  or  density  by  means  of  a  table  {see  p.  256); 

Automatic  apparatus  is  used  to  some  extent  in  the  Euro- 
pean sugar-houses   for  the  determination  of   the    density. 


56 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


One  of  the  simplest  forms  of  apparatus  for  this  purpose  is 
that  devised  by  Langen  and  shown  in  Fig.  24. 

The  construction  of  this  instrument  is  based  upon  the 
principle  of  communicating  vessels.  By  suitable  means, 
the  small  reservoir  ^  is  connected 
with  the  measuring-tank  at  the 
diffusion-battery;  a  portion  of  the 
juice  from  each  charge  drawn  into 
the  latter  is  deflected  and  passes 
through  the  reservoir  into  the 
tube  S,  and  overflows  at  r.  Inside 
the  tube  S  is  another  tube,  J^D, 
which  terminates  above  in  a  fun- 
nel-shaped vessel  and  below  in  a 
flexible  bulb  in  the  tank  H.  The 
interior  of  this  tube,  including  the 
bulb,  is  filled  with  water,  whose 
height  is  registered  upon  a  cylinder 
B  by  means  of  a  float  carrying  a 
pencil,  n.  It  is  evident  from  an  in- 
spection of  this  apparatus  that  the 
water  in  the  inner  tube  will  rise  in 
proportion  to  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  juice  surrounding  and  press- 
—  ing  upon  the  flexible  rubber  bulb. 
This  rise  in  the  level  of  the  water 
is  registered  by  the  pencil,  carried 
Fig.  24,  by  the  float,  upon  the  paper-cov- 

ered cylinder.  The  cylinder  is  revolved  by  clockwork, 
making  one  revolution  every  twelve  hours.  The  record 
may  be  in  degrees  Brix  or  Baum6  as  preferred. 

The  variable  temperatures  of  the  juice  have  no  influence 
upon  the  apparatus,  provided  the  column  of  water  be  of  the 
same  temperature  as  the  juice  surrounding  it.  For  this  reason 
the  tube  /^is  spiral  at  its  lower  end.  Mr.  Eugene  Langen, 
the  inventor  of  this  instrument,  has  substituted  a  bundle  of 
fine  copper  tubes  for  the  spiral,  jD.  Foam  and  mechanical 
impurities  do  not  affect  the  accuracy  of  the  apparatus. 

56.  Hydrometers  or  Spindles. — These  instru- 
ments are  also  termed  "  saccharometers  "  when  specially 
graduated  for  use  in  the  sugar  industry.     The  density  is 


DENSITY   DETERMINATIONS. 


57 


ascertained  by  noting  the  depth  to  which 
-BRix  the  spindle  sinks  in  the  liquid. 


1  10 
11 
13 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 

L 


Hydrometers  of  the  better  grade,  for  use 
in  sugar  work,  are  of  the  shape  shown  in 
Fig.  25.  Spindles  of  the  best  quality  are 
of  glass,  and  are  usually  provided  with  a 
fine  thermometer.  Instruments  for  rough 
work  are  made  of  metal  or  of  glass,  and 
without  a  thermometer. 

A  variety  of  systems  of  graduations  is 
used  in  France,  but  in  this  country  and  in 
Germany  the  Brix  and  the  Baum6  are  the 
only  scales  employed  in  sugar  work.  In  com- 
paring data  obtained  in  French  sugar-houses 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  percentages  are 
usually  expressed  in  terms  of  the  volume  of 
the  solution  instead  of  the  weight. 

In  American  and   German  sugar-houses, 
the  standard  temperature  for  the  graduation 
~  of  instruments  is  17^°  C;  in 

France,  etc.,  it  is  15°  C. 

Since  the  tables  for  cal- 
culations are  based  on  a 
temperature  of  17^°  C.  it  is 
advisable  that  all  hydrom- 
eters be  graduated  at  this 
temperature. 

It  is  recommended  that 
the  hydrometers  be  gradu- 
ated to  ^V  Brix.  The  in- 
struments should  be  ar- 
ranged in  sets  of  o"  to  5°, 
5°  to  10°,  10°  to  15°,  15°  to 
20°,  and  20°  to  25°  Brix. 
Each  should  be  provided 
with  a  delicate  thermome- 
ter. The  stem  should  be 
long,  that  the  graduations 
may  be  read  with  certainty 
Fig.  26.  and  ease. 


0-. 

1-. 

i 

^ 

m 

1 

tft^ 

^'. 

Wii 

ES 

2| 

^ 

58  HAN"DBOOK   FOR    SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

Spindles  should  be  tested  from  time  to  time,  employing 
•standardized  solutions  of  pure  sucrose  of  the  temperature 
at  which  the  instrument  was  graduated,  preferably  at  17^°  C. 
The  strength  of  the  sugar  solution  should  be  checked  by 
means  of  the  polariscope. 

The  method  of  reading  the  spindle  is  shown  in  Fig.  26. 
The  reading  at  E,  not  R\  should  be  recorded  as  the  observed 
density,  and  a  correction  should  be  made  for  variations  in 
the  temperature  from  the  standard.  A  table  is  given  on 
page  282  for  the  correction  of  the  observed  degree  for  varia- 
tions of  temperature  above  and  below  17^°  C.  It  is  advisable 
to  make  all  readings  at  as  nearly  i7^°C.as  may  be  practicable. 

56.  The  WestpUal  Balance.— The  principle  of  this 
balance '  may  be  briefly  stated  as  follows  :  A  glass  bob 
is  so  adjusted  as  to  be  capable  cf  displacing  a  given  num- 
ber of  grams,  five  for  instance,  of  distilled  water,  at  a  given 
temperature  when  wholly  immersed  in  the  liquid  and  sus- 
pended by  a  fine  platinum  wire.  The  bobs  may  be  gradu- 
ated for  any  temperature  ;  but  for  sugar  work  17^°  C.  is 
most  convenient,  since  this  is  the  temperature  usually  em- 
ployed in  preparing  specific-gravity  tables.  For  accurate 
work  the  temperature  of  the  solution  whose  specific  grav- 
ity is  to  be  determined  should  be  exactly  that  for  which 
the  bob  was  graduated.  The  balance  is  provided  with 
several  riders  or  weights.  Two  of  these  riders,  (i)  and  (2), 
are  each  exactly  the  weight  of  the  water  displaced  by  the 
bob  at  the  standard  temperature,  i7i°C.  The  other  riders, 
(3),  (4),  and  (5),  are  respectively  one  tenth,  one  hundredth, 
and  one  thousandth  the  weight  of  the  first  mentioned. 
When  the  weight  (i)  is  hung  on  the  hook  at  the  end  of  the 
beam,  and  the  bob  is  immersed  in  distilled  water  at  17^°  C, 
the  balance  should  be  in  equilibrium,  the  weight  having 
the  value  i.ooo  in  this  position.  In  case  the  balance  be  not 
in  equilibrium  under  these  conditions, provided  the  bob  have 
been  correctly  graduated,  the  latter  must  be  suspended  from 
the  hook  and  the  adjusting-screw  turned  until  the  pointers 
are  exactly  opposite  one  another.  The  weights  (2),  (3),  (4), 
and  (5)  are  placed  on  the  beam  in  addition  to  (i)  for  liquids 

*  Adapted  from  Bull.  13,  Chem.  Div.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agri.;  also  illustration. 


DENSITY   DETERMINATIONS. 


59 


heavier  than  water,  and  have  the  values  .i,  .oi,  .001,  and 
.ooor,  respectively,  when  placed  on  the  corresponding 
graduations  of  the  beam,  and  for  other  graduations  .300, 
.030,  .003,  .0003,  etc.     Each  rider  is  provided  with  a  hook 


Fig. 


from   which  additional  weights  may  be  suspended  in  the 
case  of  more  than  one  falling  upon  the  same  graduation. 

The  method  of  using  the  balance  is  as  follows  :  Dissolve 
a  weighed  portion  of  the  material  in  water  and  dilute  to 
a  measured  volume  at  17^°  C. ;  for  example,  25  grams  to 
100  cc.  Suspend  the  bob  of  the  balance,  as  described 
above,  in  this  solution,  and  weight  the  beam  with  the 
riders  until  the  balance  is  in  equilibrium.  Read  off  the 
specific  gravity  from  the  position  of  the  weights  on  the 
beam.  Example  :  25  grams  material  dissolved  and  diluted 
to  100  cc.      Position  of  the  riders  : 


60 


HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


(i)  at  point  of  suspension  of  the  bob  =  i.ooo 

(2)  not  on  the  beam. 

(3)  at  7 =0.07 

(4)  at  9 =  0.009 


Specific  gravity =  1.079 

The  degree  Brix  corresponding  to  1.079,  '•'^•»  the  per  cent 
solids  in  this  solution,  is  19,  as  given  in  the  table,  page 
275.  To  obtain  the  weight  of  the  solution,  multiply  1.079 
by  100  =  107.9  >  hence  the  weight  of  solids  in  the  solution 
js  107.9X19-^-100  =  20.5  grams  =  the  weight  of  solid  matter 
in  25  grams  of  the  material.  The  per  cent  solids  in  the 
material,  i.e.,  the  degree  Brix  =  20.5  -^^  25  X  100  =  82,  and 
the  corresponding  specific  gravity,  obtained  from  the  table, 


/T^ 


Fig.  28. 
the    density  is    to    be    determined. 


is  1.4293.  See  85  relative  to  the  ac- 
curacy of  this  determination  of  the 
degree  Brix. 

57.  Py kilometers.  —  Pyknome- 
ters  are  bottles  so  constructed  that  they 
may  be  filled  with  a  definite  volume 
of  liquid.  Knowing  the  weight  of  this 
volume,  it  may  be  compared  with  the 
weight  of  an  equal  volume  of  water, 
from  which  the  density  of  the  liquid 
is  calculated.  It  is  rarely  necessary 
to  use  a  pyknometer  in  the  sugar  in- 
dustry, the  more  rapid  density  deter- 
mination by  the  spindle  being  usually 
sufficiently  accurate. 

Pyknometers  are  made  in  a  great 
variety  of  forms.  One  of  the  most 
convenient  of  these  is  shown  in  Fig. 
28.  The  stopper  is  a  fine  thermom- 
eter ground  into  the  neck  of  the 
bottle.  The  side  tube  provides  an 
outlet  for  the  excess  of  liquid  when 
the  stopper  is  put  in  place.  The 
bottle  should  be  filled  at  a  somewhat 
lower  temperature  than  that  at  which 
As   the   temperature 


DENSITY   DETERMINATIONS.  61 

gradually  rises  to  the  desired  point,  the  excess  of  liquid  is 
blotted  off.  At  the  required  temperature,  the  cap  is  placed 
in  position,  and  receives  any  further  liquid,  which  may 
be  expelled  from  the  bottle,  as  the  temperature  rises  to  that 
of  the  room.  There  is  a  minute  opening  in  the  cap  for  the 
escape  of  the  air. 

In  sugar  work,  the  specific  gravity  should  be  determined 
at  17^°  C.  for  reasons  already  stated.  The  weight  of  the 
corresponding  volume  of  water  may  be  determined  at  room 
temperature  and  a  correction  be  made  to  reduce  it  to  the 
standard  temperature,  the  tables  on  page  251  being  used  for 
this  purpose.     It  is  customary  to  express  specific  gravities 

as  follows  :  — '—:,  1.0705;  the  numbers  above  and  below  the 

17.5 
line  being  the  temperatures  at  which  the  bottle  was  filled 
with  water  and  the  substance  respectively. 

Recently  boiled  and  cooled  distilled  water  should  be 
used  in  density  determinations. 

To  calculate  the  density  of  a  liquid,  divide  the  weight  of 
a  definite  volume  of  it  by  the  weight  of  an  equal  volume 
of  water. 

57a.  Standard  Temperature  for  Density  Determinations. — 

20° 
The  International  Commission  has  adopted  — ^  C.  as  the  stand- 
ard temperature  for  density  determinations.  The  hydrometer 
should  sink  to  the  0°  mark  in  water  at  20°  C,  and  the  cor- 
responding specific  gravity  of  the  water,  referred  to  water  at  4° 
C,  is  0.998234. 

As  the  adoption  of  this  standard  is  very  recent,  most  factories 
are  equipped  with  instruments  standardized  at  17^°  C.  and  with 
the  corresponding  tables,  such  as  are  given  in  this  book. 


62         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  BEET. 

58.  The  Direct  Analysis  of  the  Beet.— The 
Methods  for  the  direct  analysis  of  the  beet  may  be  divided 
into  two  general  classes,  according  to  the  solvent  used,  viz. : 
(i)  methods  employing  alcohol ;  (2)  methods  employing  water. 
The  alcoholic  methods  have  found  most  favor  in  Germany, 
and  the  aqueous  methods  in  France. 

Certain  modifications  of  the  Scheibler  alcoholic  method 
and  Pellet's  aqueous  methods,  hot  and  cold,  are  the  most 
important  of  their  classes,  and  are  the  only  ones  which  will 
be  described  in  this  book.  It  is  probable,  judging  from 
the  published  statements  of  many  chemists,  that  these  meth- 
ods are  equally  accurate  if  the  instructions  of  their  invent- 
ors be  implicitly  complied  with.  The  alcoholic  methods 
are  usually  considered  the  most  scientific. 

69.  Scheibler's  Alcoholic  Method  with  Sox- 
hlet's  Extraction  Apparatus.— Various  modifications 
of  Soxhlet's  apparatus  are  used  to  such  an  extent  in  chem- 
ical laboratories  that  an  illustration.  Fig.  29,  and  a  brief 
description  of  it  will  suffice.  The  apparatus  is  so  arranged 
that  the  vapors  of  the  solvent,  which  is  boiled  in  the  flask 
by  means  of  a  hot-water  bath,  pass  up  through  the  tube  B 
to  the  reflux  condenser,  and  the  solvent  falls  back  into  the 
extractor  in  which  the  material  is  placed.  When  a  suffi- 
cient quantity  of  the  solvent  accumulates  in  the  extractor, 
it  is  siphoned  into  the  flask  by  the  tube  shown  at  the  right. 
The  substance  is  thus  extracted  with  successive  portions 
of  the  solvent. 

A  very  convenient  and  efficient  modification  of  this  ap- 
paratus is  the  siphon  extraction-tube  devised  by  A.  E. 
Knorr,  shown  in  Fig.  30.  The  connections  with  the  flask 
and  condenser  are  made  with  corks  as  in  the  Soxhlet 
apparatus.  Knorr's  apparatus,  as  arranged  for  general 
purposes,  dispenses  with  corks,  but  requires  a  special 
flask,  which  is  not  convenient  for  sugar  analysis. 

The  siphon-tube  S  is  sealed  into  the  bottom  of  the  tube 


ANALYSIS  OP  THE  BEET. 


63 


A  and  lies  close  to  the  wall  so  as  to  permit  the  insertion 
of  the  tube  B  containing  the 
material.  The  lower  end  of  B 
is  closed  with  a  perforated  disk. 
A  spiral  of  copper  wire,  C,  pre- 
vents the  tube  A  from  closing 
the  tube  D. 

This    apparatus    has    the   ad- 
vantage   of    extracting    the   SU' 
crose  with  a  hot  solvent. 
Other  convenient  modifications 
of  Soxhlet's  appara- 
tus are  described  by 
Wiley    in   his    Agri- 
cultural Analysis, 

In  the  direct  an- 
alysis of  the  beet 
with  the  Soxhlet- 
Sickel  apparatus, 
Fig.  29,  proceed  as 
follows  for  the  ex- 
traction of  the  su- 
crose: Place  a  plug 
of  absorbent  cotton 
in  the  bottom  of  the 
tube,  then  introduce 
26.048  grams  of  the 
pulped  beet,  or  2  X 
16.29  grams,  accord- 
ing to  the  polari- 
scope  in  use,  press- 
ing the  pulp  lightly 
with  a  rod.  Very 
small  fragments  of 
the  beet  may  be 
used  instead  of  pulp. 
Connect  the  extractor  with  the  reflux  condenser  as  shown. 
Place  75  cc.  of  95  per  cent  alcohol  in  the  flask  and  connect 
with  the  extractor  as  indicated  in  the  figure;  heat  the  flask  in 
the  water-bath  and  continue  the  extraction  from  half  an 


Pig.  29. 


Fig.  30. 


64         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

hour  to  two  hours  or  more,  according  to  the  state  of 
division  of  the  sample.  Use  somewhat  weaker  alcohol  if 
only  16.29  grams  of  pulp  be  taken.  Cool  and  remove  the 
flask,  substituting  a  second  containing  75  cc.  of  75  to  80  per 
cent  alcohol,  and  continue  the  extraction  to  ascertain 
whether  the  first  extraction  were  complete. 

Fill  the  first  flask  to  the  100  cc.  mark,  after  treating  the 
sample  with  two  or  three  drops  r>f  subacetate  of  lead  solu- 
tion. Mix  the  contents  of  the  flask,  filter,  and  polarize. 
Having  extracted  the  normal  weight  of  pulp,  the  polari- 
scopic  reading  is  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  sample. 

The  extract  in  the  second  flask  should  also  be  polarized 
as  a  check  upon  the  extraction. 

Great  care  is  essential  in  the  polarization  of  alcoholic 
solutions.  The  least  quantity  of  subacetate  of  lead,  that 
will  clarify  the  solution,  should  be  used.  The  solution 
must  be  protected  from  evaporation  during  the  filtration  by 
a  cover-glass.  Avoid  irregularities  in  the  temperature  of 
the  solution  in  the  observation-tube,  due  to  the  warmth  of 
the  hands;  since  the  density  of  the  solution  in  different 
parts  of  the  tube  will  vary  under  such  conditions,  striae  will 
form,  rendering  an  accurate  reading  impossible. 

The  Scheibler  method,  as  above  described,  differs  from 
the  original  only  in  a  few  minor  details,  especially  in  the 
arrangement  of  the  extraction  apparatus.  The  Soxhlet  ex- 
traction apparatus  is  much  more  effective  than  Scheibler's 
original  instrument. 

00.  Stammer's  Alcoholic  Digestion  Method/ 
— This  method  differs  from  that  of  Pellet  described  in  62 
in  details  of  manipulation  and  in  the  use  of  alcohol  instead 
of  water.  The  pulp  must  be  reduced  to  a  cream,  in  fact 
should  be  as  finely  divided  as  is  required  in  the  Pellet 
method  (62). 

Wash  26.048  grams  of  pulp  into  a  flask  graduated  at 
100.55  cc.  with  92  per  cent  alcohol,  add  subacetate  of  lead 
for  clarification,  and  dilute  to  the  mark  with  the  alcohol. 
The  least  quantity  of  the  subacetate  that  will  effect  clarifica- 
tion should  be  used.  Acetic  acid  is  not  required.  Mix  thor- 
oughly, and  after  allowing  a  few  minutes  for  the  digestion, 

^ Zeit.  Rubenzucker-Indu5irte,ZZ»aQ6.  i-,-iy,'*f   -Ju 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   BEET. 


65 


filter  and  polarize,  observing  the  precautions  given  in  59 
relative  to  the  polarization  of  alcoholic  solutions. 

A  method  similar  to  this,  Rapp-Degener,  employs  hot 
digestion  in  a  flask  fitted  with  a  reflux  condenser. 

61.  Pellet's  Aqueous  Method.  Hot  Digestion. 
— Any  good  rasp  may  be  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
pulp  for  this  method.     Pellet  recommends  the  conical  rasp 


of  Pellet  and  Lomont,  as  illustrated  in  Figs.  31,  32,  and  33. 
There  is  frequently  a  depression  in  the  side  of  the  beet,  as 
shown  in  section  in  Fig.  34.  Since  the  segments  OA  and 
OB  are  not  of  equal  sugar  con- 
tent, two  segments  should  be 
reduced  to  pulp,  or,  if  the  sam- 
ple include  a  large  number  of 
beets,  a  single  segment  of  each 
may  be  pulped,  taking  care  to 
present  alternately  the  large  and 
the  small  diameters  of  the  beets 
to  the  rasp. 

The  special  flasks  shown  in 
Fig.  35  are  convenient  for  use  in 
this  method.  Transfer  26.048 
grams  of  the   pulp  to  4;he  flask,  F'g.  32. 

using  a  little  water  to  wash  the  weighing  capsule  and 
funnel,  or,  for  the  Laurent,  employ  32.58  grams  of  pulp,  i.e., 
2  X  normal  weight.  The  flasks  are  graduated  to  contain 
801.35  cc.  for  the  Schmidt  and  Haensch  and  201.7  cc  for 


i>^^»«» 


66         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

the  Laurent  polariscopes,  in   order   to   compensate   for  the 


Fig.  34. 


Fig.  33- 
volume  of  the  marc  and  the  lead  precipitate.  Add  5  to 
10  cc.  subacetate  of  lead  solution  of  54.3° 
Brix  (207)  for  the  clarification.  Approxi- 
mately 6  to  7  cc.  are  required  per  26 
grams  of  beet-pulp.  This  reagent  should 
be  run  into  the  flask  in  advance  of  the 
beet-pulp.  Add  a  few  drops  of  ether  to 
beat  down  the  foam,  then  sufficient  water 
to  increase  the  volume  of  the  solution  to 
about  190  cc.  Heat  to  So""  C.  in  a  water- 
bath  and  maintain  this  temperature  about 
30  minutes,  occasionally  giving  the  flask  a  circular  move- 
ment to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  air  from  the  pulp. 
Increase  the  volume  of  the  solution  from  time  to  time 
during  the  heating,  so  that  when  the  opera- 
tion is  completed  only  a  few  drops  of  water 
will  be  required  to  complete  the  volume  of 
the  solution  to  the  mark.  After  approxi- 
mately 30  minutes'  heating,  cool  the  flask  and 
contents  and  add  strong  acetic  acid  to  the 
solution  to  acidity,  dilute  to  the  graduation, 
mix  and  filter.  The  state  of  division  of  the 
pulp  will  govern  the  time  of  heating.  In 
polarizing  the  filtrate,  use  a  400-mqj.  observa- 
tion-tube, thus  directly  obtaining  the  per  cent 
sucrose  in  the  beet  with  the  Schmidt  and 
Haensch  polariscope,  or  double  this  percentage  if  the 
Laurent  instrument  be  used. 


Fig.  35. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   BEET.  67 

Pellet  uses  a  special  water-bath  in  this  process  that 
admits  a  considerable  number  of  flasks  at  one  time.  The 
flasks  are  held  in  a  rack  and  may  all  be  removed  from  the 
bath  at  one  time  and  plunged  into  cold  water. 

The  solutions  should  be  carefully  protected  from  evap- 
oration by  covering  the  funnel  during  filtration. 

There  has  been  much  controversy  relative  to  this  method, 
especially  among  the  German  chemists.  Many  claim  that 
it  gives  results  that  are  too  high,  and  other  chemists  of 
equal  prominence  and  experience  contend  that  it  gives  cor- 
rect results.  Le  Docte,'  in  a  series  of  experiments,  obtained 
percentages  by  hot  digestion  a  few  one-hundredths  higher 
than  by  the  cold  diffusion  method  described  below.  The 
following  method,  using  cold  water,  is  usually  preferred, 
provided  a  sufficiently  fine  pulp  can  be  produced. 

62.  Pellet's  Instantaneous  Aqueous  Diffu- 
sion Method. — The  method  as  described  by  Pellet  will 
be  given  first,  and  then  a  few  of  the  various  modifications. 
The  author  prefers  the  Sachs-Le  Docte  modification  given 
on  page  i8i,   which  combines  rapidity  and  accuracy. 

Pellet's  Original  Method.  —  In  following  Pellet's  original 
method  the  specifications  as  to  the  condition  of  the  pulp 
and  the  quantity  used  must  be  strictly  complied  with  in 
order  to  obtain  satisfactory  results. 

For  polariscopes  whose  normal  weight  is  26.048  grams 
wash  this  weight  of  pulp,  with  water,  into  a  fiask  graduated 
to  hold  201.35  cc,  or  25.87  grams  into  a  200-cc.  flask. 
Run  5  to  7  cc.  of  subacetate  of  lead  solution  of  54.3°  Brix 
(ii07)  into  the  flask  before  washing  in  the  pulp,  and 
then  thoroughly  mix  with  the  latter.  Add  several  small 
portions  of  ether  to  beat  down  the  foam.  Rotate  the  flask 
to  facilitate  the  escape  of  the  air-bubbles.  Add  a  few 
drops  of  acetic  acid  to  acidulate  the  solution,  complete  the 
volume  to  the  graduation,  mix,  filter,  and  polarize,  using  a 
400-mm.  observation-tube.  The  polariscopic  reading  is 
the  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  beet.  With  the  Laurent 
instrument,  use  the  normal  weight  of  pulp  and  a  flask 
graduated    to   hold    200.85  cc.     The    polariscopic    reading, 

>  Sucrerit  Beige ^  585,  2451  273,  309. 


68         HANDBOOK  FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

using  a  400-mm.  observation-tube,  is  the  per  cent  sucrose 
in  the  beet. 

Success  with  this  method  demands  (i)  that  the  pulp  shall 
be  in  a  suitable  state  of  division,  neither  too  coarse  nor  too 
fine;  (2)  that  no  more  pulp  shall  be  used  than  indicated  in 
the  description  of  the  method.  If  there  be  difficulty  in 
removing  the  air  occluded  by  the  pulp,  notwithstanding 
repeated  additions  of  ether,  the  pulp  is  too  fine.  This 
may  be  remedied  by  altering  the  speed  of  the  rasp.  The 
occluded  air  is  the  source  of  error  that  requires  greatest 
care  to  avoid. 

Kaiser-Sachs  Modification. — This  method  and  the  Sachs- 
Le  Docte  modification  practically  eliminate  errors  from  the 
Pellet  instantaneous  diffusion  method.  Use  flasks  holding 
a  little  more  than  200  cc.  Also  use  the  same  quantities  of 
pulp  as  indicated  in  the  description  of  the  original  Pellet 
method.  Run  5  cc.  of  subacetate  of  lead  solution  into  the 
flask,  then  counterpoise  the  flask  and  contents  on  a 
balance.  Wash  the  pulp  into  a  flask  and  add  sufficient 
water  to  make  a  total  of  172  grams  of  water.  Mix  thor- 
oughly, filter,  and  polarize  the  solution  in  a  400-mm.  tube. 
The  polariscopic  reading  is  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the 
beet.  According  to  Pellet,  acetic  acid  should  always  be 
added.     This  agrees  with  the  author's  experience. 

Sachs-Le  Docte. — This  method,  which  is  fully  described 
on  page  181,  differs  from  the  above  in  adding  the  water 
and  subacetate  of  lead  from  an  overflow  or  automatic 
pipette.  This  insures  a  very  accurate  measurement,  with 
extreme  rapidity. 

The  finest  attainable  pulp  should  be  used  with  both  the 
Sachs-Le  Docte  and  the  Kaiser-Sachs  methods. 

03.  Determination  of  the  KecliiciDg-  Sugar  in 
the  Beet. — Herzf eld's  Modification  of  Claassen's  Method. — 
Digest  no  grams  of  finely  divided  pulp,  or  preferably 
creamed  pulp,  in  a  500-cc.  flask  with  10  to  15  cc.  of  dilute 
subacetate  of  lead  solution,  3  grams  of  precipitated  carbon- 
ate of  calcium,  and  suflBcient  water  to  nearly  fill  the  flask. 
Digest  45  minutes  at  a  temperature  of  75°  to  80°  C.  Cool 
and  complete  the  volume  to  500  cc,  mix,  and  filter.  If 
necessary,  clarify  100  cc.  of  the  filtrate  with  an  additional 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE   BEET.  69 

portion  of  subacetate  of  lead  ;  add  carbonate  of  sodium  in 
small  excess  to  precipitate  the  lead,  dilute  to  no  cc,  and 
filter.  Determine  the  reducing  sugar  in  the  filtrate  by  one 
of  the  methods  given  in  72  and  73.  The  percentage  of 
reducing  substance  in  the  beet  is  so  small  that  no  correc- 
tion need  be  made  for  the  volume  of  the  marc. 

64.  Notes  on  the  Direct  Methods  of  Analysis. 
— With  the  exception  of  Scheibler's  alcoholic  method,  it  is 
necessary  to  make  an  arbitrary  allowance  for  the  volume  of 
the  marc  in  the  direct  analysis  of  the  beet.  Pellet  has 
based  this  allowance  upon  the  mean  of  a  large  number  of 
marc  determinations,  made  under  practically  the  conditions 
which  obtain  in  his  cold  diffusion  method.  The  error  intro- 
duced through  an  arbitrary  allowance  for  marc  is  very 
small,  and  even  in  extreme  cases  may  be  neglected. 

There  should  be  no  delay  in  the  analysis  of  the  pulp. 
As  soon  as  it  is  obtained  it  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  and 
protected  from  the  air. 

65.  Rasps  and  Mills  for  the  Reduction  of  the 
Beet. —  The  Cylindro-divider,  Keil  (Gallois  and  Dupont, 
Paris). — This  machine,  Fig.  36,  as  indicated  by  its  name, 
consists  esssentially  of  two  deeply  grooved  cylinders  which 
revolve  in  opposite  directions.  Nearly  all  of  the  pulp 
adheres  to  the  cylinders,  but  little  dropping  into  the 
drawer.  The  particles  which  fall,  if  too  large,  should  be 
returned  to  the  mill  and  the  grinding  should  be  continued 
until  the  pulp  is  uniformly  divided.  The  mill  should  be 
driven  at  120  revolutions  per  minute,  either  by  hand  or 
power. 

Should  the  beets  be  unripe  or  unsound,  the  juice  may 
separate  and  collect  in  the  drawer.  In  this  event,  the  pulp, 
when  fine  enough,  should  be  removed  from  the  cylinders 
and  thoroughly  mixed  with  this  juice.  The  pulp  will  absorb 
the  juice,  and  may  then  be  sampled  as  usual. 

This  mill  is  designed  for  grinding  cossettes  and  fragments 
of  beets,  and  produces  a  pulp  which  may  be  analyzed  by 
Pellet's  instantaneous  method. 

Pellet  and  LomonVs  Conical  Rasp. — This  machine  as  illus- 
trated in  Figs.  31,32,  and  33  is  fitted  with  saw-blades  and  is 
not  applicable  in  the  instantaneous  diffusion  method.     The 


70 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAK-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


machine  is  also  constructed  with  a  cast-steel  disk,  which  may 
be  briefly  described  as  a  rotary  file  as  cut  for  rasping  wood. 


Fig.  36. 

This  form  is  applicable  in  the  above-mentioned  diffusion 
method. 

A  little  practice  is  necessary  in  the  manipulation  of  this 
and  certain  other  rasps  in  order  to  produce  a  suitable  pulp. 

Neveti  and  Aubin^s  Rasp.^ — This  rasp  may  be  used  in  the 


*  Bulletin  de  r Association  des  CUimistes,  13,  31 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE   BEET. 


71 


reduction  of  beets,  but  not  cossettes,  to  an  extremely  fine 
pulp  for  use  in  any  of  the  direct  methods  of  analysis  or  in 
the  indirect  method.  The  construction  of  the  machine  is 
shown  in  Fig.  37.  It  is  driven  by  hand  or  power  from  75 
to  400  revolutions  per  minute. 


Fig    37. 

Additional  rasps,  designed  especially  for  use  in  seed 
selection,  are  described  in  IGO  and  1  (>1 . 

66.  Indirect  Analysis  of  the  Beet.— The  indirect 
analysis,  i.e.,  the  analysis  of  the  juice  and  calculation  to 
terms  of  the  weight  of  the  beets,  cannot  be  depended  upon 
to  supply  data  for  the  control  of  the  factory.  In  order  tb 
calculate  the  analysis  of  the  beet  from  that  of  the  juice,  it 
is  necessary  to  assume  that  the  juice  extracted  by  the  press 
is  of  the  same  composition  as  the  average  of  all  the  juice 
contained  in  the  beet.     Experience   has  shown  that  this  is 


72 


HANDBOOK   FOE  SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 


not  true,  and  that  the  juice  obtained  by  moderate  pressure 
differs  materially  from  that  obtained  by  heavy  pressure. 
It  also  varies  with  the  state  of  division  of  the  pulp.  There 
is  also  reason  to  believe  that  the  beet  contains  water  in 
which  there  is  little,  if  any,  sugar  in  solution.  Further, 
in  order  to  render  an  indirect  method  practicable,  it  is 
necessary  to  assume  that  the  beet  contains  an  average  of 
a  certain  percentage  of  juice,  and  employ  this  percentage 
as  a  coefficient  in  reducing  to  terms  of  the  beet.     The  fact 


Fig.  38. 


that  the  content  of  marc  varies  within  rather  wide  limits  is 
an  argument  against  this  method  of  analysis. 

The  indirect  method  is  still  employed  in  a  large  number 

of  sugar-houses,  hence  is  described  in  this  book. 

The  following  is  the  usual  method  of  procedure  : 

The  sample  is  finely  rasped  by  a  suitable  machine,  such 

as  a  special  rasp  or  an  efficient  horseradish   grater.     The 

pulp  is  placed  in  a  small  cotton  bag  and   the  juice  is  ex- 


AKALYSIS  OF  THE  BEET.  •?$ 

pressed  by  means  of  a  powerful  press,  such  as  that  shown 
in  Fig.  38.  In  operating  the  press  as  heavy  pressure  as 
possible  is  exerted  by  turning  the  upper  wheel,  then  locking 
with  the  ratchet  as  shown  in  the  figure,  and  completing  the 
expression  of  the  juice  by  means  of  the  lower  wheel.  This 
press  exerts  a  maximum  pressure  of  nearly  2000  lbs.  per 
square  inch. 

In  order  to  closely  approximate  the  true  mean  composi- 
tion of  the  juice,  it  is  essential  that  the  pulp  be  very  finely 
divided  and  that  as  much  pressure  be  exerted  in  expressing 
the  juice  as  is  practicable. 

The  analysis  is  made  as  indicated  in  07  et  seq. 

In  the  indirect  analysis,  it  is  customary  to  assume  that 
the  beet  contains  a  mean  of  95  per  cent  of  juice  ;  therefore 
to  calculate  the  percentage  to  terms  of  the  weight  of  the 
beet,  multiply  the  per  cents  on  the  weight  of  the  juice  by 
95  and  divide  by  100. 

This  method  permits  an  approximate  determination  of 
the  coefficient  of  purity  of  the  juice  which  is  not  possible 
with  a  direct  method  and  which  is  often  of  value. 


74         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHExMISTS. 


ANALYSIS    OF   THE    JUICE. 

67.  Determination  of  the  Density.— The  density 
is  usually  determined  by  means  of  a  Brix  spindle.  The 
degree  Brix  may  be  converted  into  terms  of  the  specific 
gravity  for  use  in  calculating  the  weight  of  the  juice  by 
means  of  the  table,  page  275  ;  or  a  Baume  spindle  may  be 
used  and  the  readings  converted  into  Brix  and  specific 
gravity  by  the  above-mentioned  table. 

A  cylinder  is  filled  with  a  sample  of  the  juice  and  is  set 
aside  for  the  escape  of  air-bubbles  and  to  permit  mechani- 
cal impurities  to  subside  or  rise  to  the  surface.  This  time 
varies  from  a  few  minutes  to  half  an  hour.  Care  must  be 
observed  not  to  let  the  juice  stand  long  enough  for  fermen- 
tation to  set  in.  Those  impurities  which  rise  to  the  surface 
should  be  brushed  off,  and  the  spindle  then  floated  in  the 
juice.  After  allowing  sufficient  time  for  the  spindle  to 
reach  the  temperature  of  the  juice,  the  scale  is  read  as 
directed  in  55  and  illustrated  in  Fig.  26,  and  the  tempera- 
ture of  the  juice  is  noted. 

To  correct  for  temperatures  above  or  below  17^°  C,  the 
standard  temperature  at  which  these  instruments  are 
usually  graduated  in  Germany  and  the  United  States,  con- 
sult the  table  on  page  282.  It  is  advisable  that  the  tem- 
perature  of  the  juice  when  spindling  be  as  nearly  17^°  C. 
as  practicable. 

It  is  necessary  that  the  density  be  determined  with  great 
care,  since  the  result  obtained  is  employed  in  calculating  the 
weight  of  the  juice  at  an  important  stage  of  the  control  work. 

Other  methods  of  determining  the  density  are  indicated 
in  pages  55  to  61. 

68.  Sucrose  Determination  .  Special  Pipette 
for  Measurements.— The  method  of  preserving  the 
samples  will,  to  some  extent,  influence  the  preliminary 
work  of  the  analysis. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   J  DICK 


75 


The  method  of  analysis  indicated  in  69  is 
usually  more  convenient  when  subacetate  of  lead 
is  used  as  a  preservative.  If,  however,  mercuric 
chloride  be  employed  in  the  sampling,  the  special 
pipette  devised  by  the  author  is  convenient,  since 
the  polariscopic  reading  is  a  multiple  of  the  per- 
centage of  sucrose. 

This  pipette  is  shown  in  Fig.  39.  It  is  so  gradu- 
ated that  one  need  simply  note  the  degree  Brix  of 
the  juice,  then  fill  the  pipette  to  the  corresponding 
degree  marked  on  its  stem.  The  graduations  in- 
dicate the  volume  of  juice,  of  corresponding  den- 
sities, which  weighs  52.096  grams,  i.e.,  two  times 
the  normal  weight. 

The  pipettes  are  usually  graduated  for  ordi- 
nary work  from  5  to  25  degrees  Brix  in  tenths. 
It  is  recommended  that,  for  control  work,  the 
pipettes  be  graduated  with  only  a  small  range  on 
each,  and  that  there  be  an  additional  graduation 
as  shown  in  the  figure.  The  tubing  should  be  of 
small  internal  diameter  that  the  tenths  may  be  the 
more  easily  read.  The  pipette  as  ordinarily  made, 
without  the  additional  mark  near  the  outlet,  should 
be  graduated  with  a  solution  of  approximately 
the  viscosity  of  a  sugar  solution,  of  the  mean  de- 
gree Brix  within  the  limits  of  the  scale. 

One  should  not  blow  into  the  pipette  while 
emptying  it,  nor  should  the  last  portions  of  the 
juice  be  expelled  in  this  way. 

To  calculate  the  percentage  of  sucrose,  divide 
the  polariscopic  reading,  with  the  German  instru- 
ments, by  2.  Pipettes  for  the  Laurent  instrument 
are  graduated  to  deliver  three  times  the  normal 
weight  (3  X  16.29  grams),  hence  the  reading  should 
be  divided  by  3.  The  juice  should  be  measured 
at  the  temperature  at  which  the  degree  Brix  was 
determined. 

69.  Sucrose  in  tlie  Juice  .  General 
Metliod. — When  the  test  is  not  complicated  by  the 
use  of  a  liquid  preservative,  the  measurement  may 


/\ 


/ 


^6         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

be  effected  in  a  loo-iio  cc.  flask.  To  lOO  cc.  of  the  juice,  sub- 
acetate  of  lead  is  added  and  the  volume  is  completed  to  the  no 
cc.  mark  with  water.  The  percentage  of  sucrose  is  ascertained 
from  the  polariscope  reading,  and  the  degree  Brix,  with  aid  of 
Schmitz'  table,  page  285. 

Method  Employing  Subacetate  of  Lead  Solution  as  a  Pre- 
servative — This  method  is  applicable  in  preparing  a  composite 
sample  representing  a  day's  work.  A  measured  volume  of  the 
lead  solution  is  used,  and  at  the  end  of  the  sampling  period  the 
sample,  containing  the  lead,  is  measured  and  sufficient  water  is 
added  to  complete  the  volume  to  no  per  cent,  of  the  juice.  The 
method  and  calculations  are  best  illustrated  by  the  following 
exaniple: 

Degree  Brix  of  the  juice  as  determined  in  duplicate  sam- 
ples =  12.2.  Measure  the  day's  sample,  plus  the  lead  sub- 
acetate  solution,  subtract  the  number  of  cubic  centimetres 
of  the  lead  solution,  and  calculate  the  water  to  be  added  as 
shown  below: 

Volume  of  juice  and  lead  solution. . . .  3750  cc. 
Volume  of  lead  solution 75  " 

Volume  of  juice 3675  " 

Ten  per  cent  of  volume  of  juice 

=  one  tenth  of  3675  =  367.5  cc.  ' 

Volume  of  lead  solution  =    75      " 


Volume  of  water  required  =  292.5  '* 

The  total  volume,  i.e.,  3750 -|-  292.5  =  4042.5  cc.  =  iio 
per  cent  of  the  volume  of  the  juice  (3675  cc). 

Having  diluted  the  juice  and  lead  solution  to  4042.5  cc, 
mix  and  filter  off  a  few  cubic  centimetres,  and  polarize  in  a 
20-centimetre  tube: 

Polariscopic  reading  =  38.3. 

In  Schmitz'  table,  in  the  column  headed  12,  the  nearest 
degree  Brix  to  the  observed  degree,  and  opposite  38,  the 
integral  part  of  the  polariscopic  reading,  note  the  number 
10.36;  in  the  small  table  at  the  bottom  of  the  page,  opposite 
.3,  the  decimal  part  of  the  polariscopic  reading,  note  the 
number  .08,  and  add  this  to  the  number  obtained  above  for 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   JUICE.  77 

the  completed  percentage:  10.36 +  .08  =  10.44,  t^^  P^*"  ^^^^ 
sucrose  in  the  juice. 

Method  Employing  Dry  Subacetate  of  Lead  (Home's  Method). 
— The  storage  and  preservation  of  composite  samples  of  juice  and 
their  subsequent  analysis  are  greatly  facilitated  by  Home's  dry 
subacetate  of  lead  method.  This  method  was  designed  priinarily 
to  eliminate  the  error  arising  from  the  displacement  of  a  part  of 
the  solution  by  the  lead  precipitate;  it  not  only  accomplishes  this 
end,  but  also  greatly  facilitates  the  analytical  work  by  obviating 
the  necessity  of  measurements. 

For  ordinary  analytical  purposes  with  juices,  a  small  quantity 
of  finely  powdered  anhydrous  subacetate  of  lead  is  added  to  an 
indefinite  volume  of  juice  and  the  whole  is  thoroughly  mixed  by 
shaking.  It  is  usually  advisable  to  add  also  a  small  quantity  of 
dry  sharp  sand  with  the  lead.  The  sand  is  for  the  purpose  of 
breaking  up  any  portion  of  the  imperfectly  precipitated  impurities 
that  may  be  occluded  by  a  coating  of  lead  precipitate. 

After  thorough  shaking,  the  mixture  is  poured  upon  a  filter  and 
the  filtrate  is  polarized  as  usual.  The  per  cent,  sucrose  is  ascer- 
tained by  dividing  the  observed  reading  of  the  polariscope  by  i.i 
and  using  the  quotient  in  connection  with  Schmitz  table,  page 
285,  In  this  and  similar  calculations,  the  uncorrected  degree  Brix 
or  the  degree  Brix  at  the  temperature  of  the  sucrose  test,  is  used. 

Manifestly  the  use  of  a  table  or  extended  calculation  could  be 
avoided  in  this  method,  by  measuring  a  portion  of  the  filtrate 
with  a  sucrose  pipette  as  in  68,  but  the  table  is  usually  the  more 
convenient. 

Dr.  Home's  method  is  especially  convenient  in  the  preparation 
of  composite  samples  of  juices.  A  quantity  of  the  dry  lead 
estimated  to  be  sufficient  to  defecate  the  entire  sample,  is  placed 
in  a  jar  or  large  bottle.  A  measured  quantity  of  the  juice  is 
drawn  from  each  measuring-tankful  and  added  to  this  lead. 
The  contents  of  the  jar  should  be  thoroughly  mixed  after  each 
addition.     The  analysis  is  conducted  as  has  been  described  above. 

70.  Notes  on  the  Clarification  of  Samples  for 
Polarization. — Too  little  subacetate  of  lead  solution  or  a 
decided  excess  in  the  clarification  may  result  in  cloudy  fil- 
trates, or  solutions  which  filter  too  slowly.  Experience  will 
soon  enable  one  to  estimate  the  proper  amount  of  the  lead 
solution  to  use.    Sufficient  of  the  lead  nalt  must  be  used,  not 


78         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

only  to  produce  a  clear  filtrate,  but  to  precipitate  all  the  matter 
precipitable  by  this  reagent.  This  is  essential,  since  the 
beet  contains  other  optically  active  bodies  than  sucrose  (36). 

71.  Remarks  on  the  Reducing  Sugars  in  Beet 
Products. —  Beet  juices  and  products,  under  normal  con- 
ditions, do  not  usually  contain  more  than  traces  of  reducing 
sugars.  There  is  a  reducing  substance  present  in  small 
quantity,  however,  of  which  little  is  known.  It  is  usually 
termed  "  Bodenbender's  substance,"  from  the  name  of  the 
chemist  who  first  reported  its  presence.  There  is  little 
probability  of  inversion  in  the  processes  of  manufacture, 
except  at  the  diffusion-battery,  since  the  liquors  are  always 
more  or  less  alkaline.  There  is  probably  rarely  any  inver- 
sion in  the  diffusion  process,  except  during  very  irregular 
work  or  in  treating  unsound  beets.  In  view  of  these  facts, 
the  beet-sugar  chemist  is  not  often  called  upon  to  make 
reducing  sugar  determinations,  except  in  the  estimation  of 
sucrose  by  the  chemical  inversion  method.  The  methods 
of  estimating  reducing  sugars  are  given  quite  fully  in  the 
following  pages,  for  use  in  any  work  in  which  chemical 
methods  may  be  required. 

72.  Determination  of  Reducing  Sugars  (Glu- 
cose, etc.).  Gravimetric  Methods.— In  selecting  a 
method  for  reducing  sugars,  the  analyst  should  be  guided  by 
the  probable  composition  of  the  material  under  examination. 

Gravimetric  Method  for  Material  containing  I  percent  or 
less  of  Invert-sugar '  and  a  High  Percentage  of  Sucrose. — Dis- 
solve 20  grams  of  the  material  in  nearly  loocc.  of  water. 
If  necessary,  clarify  with  subacetate  of  lead  {see  74),  precipi- 
tate the  excess  of  lead  by  means  of  sodium  carbonate  in 
small  excess,  complete  the  volume  to  lOocc,  mix  thoroughly 
and  filter.  This  clarification  is  usually  advisable.  Place 
50  cc.  of  Soxhlet's  solution  (192)  in  a  beaker  and  add  50  cc. 
of  the  sugar  solution.  Heat  slowly,  taking  about  four 
minutes  to  reach  the  boiling-point,  and  boil  two  minutes. 
These  directions  should  be  strictly  complied  with.  After  the 
completion  of  the  two  minutes'  boiling  add  100  cc.  of  cold  re- 

^  The  reducinff  sugar  of  the  beet  and  beet  products  is  probably  the  re- 
sult of  inversion  of  sucrose.  The  methods  described  for  invert-sugar  are 
applicable. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   JUICE. 


79 


cently  boiled  distilled  water.  Determine  the  copper,  in  the 
precipitate,  by  one  of  the  following  methods  :  (i)  Filter  im- 
mediately under  pressure,  using  the  filter-tube  described 
below.  The  filter-tube,  Fig.  40,  consists  of  a  6-inch  hard  glass 
tube  about  |  inch  in  diameter,  into  one  end  of  which 
is  sealed  a  tube  about  3  inches  long  and  of  con- 
^venient  size  for  inserting  into  the  stopper  of  the 
.filtering  apparatus  such  as  that  shown  in  Fig.  49. 
A  perforated  platinum  disk  A,  A'  is  sealed  into  the 
bottom  of  the  large  tube  as  a  support  for  an  as- 
bestos felt  filter.  To  prepare  the  tube  for  filter- 
ing, place  it  in  position  in  the  stopper  of  the  fil- 
tering apparatus,  start  the  filter-pump,  then  pour 
water  containing  finely  divided  asbestos  in  suspen- 
sion upon  the  disk.  The  asbestos  forms  a  film 
or  felt;  dry  and  weigh.  Moisten  the  felt  before 
commencing  the  filtration.  A  funnel  should  be 
used  in  pouring  the  liquid  and  precipitate  into 
the  filter-tiibe,  to  prevent  the  cuprous  oxide  from 
adhering  to  the  walls  of  the  tube,  near  the  top.  F'g-  40. 
Transfer  all  of  the  precipitate  to  the  filter  and  wash 
thoroughly  with  hot  water.  After  washing  with  water  pass 
a  few  cc.  of  alcohol  through  the  filter  and  finally  a  little 
ether.  'Dry  the  precipitate.  Pass  a  continuous  current  of 
pure,  dry  hydrogen  through  the  tube,  at  the  same  time 
gently  heating  the  cuprous  oxide,  with  a  Bunsen  burner, 
until  it  is  completely  reduced  to  the  metallic  state;  cool 
in  a  current  of  hydrogen  and  weigh. 

(2)  Filter  immediately  after  the  reduction  is  completed, 
using  a  Gooch  crucible.  Wash  the  beaker  and  precipitate 
thoroughly  with  hot  water,  but  without  any  effort  to  transfer 
the  entire  precipitate  to  the  crucible.  Wash  the  asbestos 
film  and  the  adhering  cuprous  oxide  back  into  the  beaker, 
using  hot  dilute  nitric  acid.  After  the  copper  is  all  in 
solution,  filter  through  a  Gooch  crucible,  using  a  very  thin 
asbestos  film,  and  wash  thoroughly  with  hot  water.  Add 
10  cc.  of  dilute  sulphuric  acid,  containing  200  cc.  acid  of  1.84 
specific  gravity,  per  litre,  to  the  filtrate  and  evaporate  it 
until  the  copper  salt  has  largely  crystallized.  Heat  care- 
fully on  a  hot  iron  plate  or  a  sand-bath   until  the  evolution 


80 


HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


of  white  fumes.  Add  8  to  lo  drops  of  nitric  acid,  specific 
gravity  1.42,  and  rinse  into  a  platinum  dish  of  100  to  125  cc. 
capacity.  Precipitate  the  copper  on  the  dish  by  electrolysis. 
Wash  the  copper  thoroughly  with  water  before  breaking 
the  current  ;  remove  the  dish  from  the  circuit,  wash  with 
alcohol  and  ether  successively,  and  dry  at  a  temperature 
that  can  easily  be  borne  by  the  hand,  cool  and  weigh.  A 
beaker  may  be  substituted  for  the  platinum  dish,  the 
copper  being  deposited  upon  a  platinum  cylinder. 

When  a  direct  current  is  used  in  lighting  the  sugar-house, 
it  is  the  most  convenient  source  of  electricity  for  the  deposi- 
tion of  the  copper.  The  current  must  be 
passed  through  a  resistance  or  regulator 
in  addition  to  the  lamp.  A  convenient  and 
durable  regulator  is  shown  in  Fig.  41.  C 
is  a  glass  tube  partly  filled  with  water 
slightly  acidulated  with  sulphuric  acid  ; 
the  wire  A  connects  with  a  platinum  wire 
sealed  into  the  tube  ;  ^  is  a  glass  tube 
through  which  a  copper  wire  extends  and 
connects  with  a  platinum  wire  E  sealed 
into  this  tube.  The  tube  B  may  be  slipped 
up  or  down,  thus  regulating  the  distance 
between  the  wires  E  and  A  and  regulating 
the  current.  The  twin  wire  M\s  separated, 
severed,  and  one  end,  Z>,  connected  with 
the  platinum  dish  in  which  the  copper 
is  to  be  deposited,  and  the  other  with  the 
regulator  i5,  thence  through  the  acidulated 
water  and  A  with  the  platinum  cylinder 
f\  suspended  in  the  copper  solution. 

II  (3)  Collect  the  suboxide  in  a  weighed  Gooch 

crucible,  wash  as  indicated  in  (3),  following 
the  water  first  with  a  little  alcohol,  then  with 
a  few  drops  of  ether.  Place  the  crucible  in  a 
water  oven  and  dry  30  minutes.  Weight 
of  suboxide  of  copper  X  -888  =  weight  of 
copper  reduced. 
Fig.  41.  Having  determined  the  weight  of  copper 

reduced  by  one  of  the  above-described  methods,  ascertain  from 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   JUICE. 


81 


Herzfeld's  table  the  per  cent  of  invert-sugar  corresponding  to 
the  weight  of  copper. 

Herzfeld's  Table  for  the  Determination  of  Invert- 
sugar  IN  Materials  Containing  i  Per  Cent  or  Less 
OF  Invert-sugar  and  a  High  Percentage  of  Sucrose. 


Copper 

Copper 

Copper 

reduced  by 
lo  Grams 

Invert- 
Sugar. 

reduced  by 
10  Grams 

Invert- 

reduced  by 
10  Grams 

Invert- 

of 

of 

sugar, 

of 

sugar. 

Material. 

Material. 

Material. 

Milligrams. 

Per  Cent, 

Milligrams. 

Per  Cent. 

Milligrams. 

Per  Cent. 

50 

0.05 

120 

0.40 

190 

0.79 

55 

0.07 

125 

0.43 

195 

0.82 

60 

0.09 

130 

0.45 

200 

0.85 

65 

O.II 

135 

0.48 

205 

0.88 

70 

0.14 

140 

0.51 

210 

0.90 

75 

0.16 

145 

0.53 

215 

0.93 

80 

0.19 

150 

0.56 

220 

0.96 

85 

0.21 

155 

0.59 

225 

0.99 

90 

0.24 

160 

0.62 

230 

1.02 

95 

0.27 

165 

0.65 

235 

1.05 

100 

0.30 

170 

0.68 

240 

1.07 

105 

0.32 

175 

0.71 

245 

1. 10 

110 

0.35 

180 

0.74 

115 

0.38 

185 

0.76 

Gravimetric  Method  for  Materials  containing  more  than  I 
Per  Cent  of  Invert-sugar.  —  Prepare  a  solution  of  the 
material  to  l)e  examined,  in  such  a  manner  that  it  contains 
20  grams  in  100  cc. ;  clarify  and  remove  the  excess  of  lead 
with  a  small  excess  of  sodium  carbonate  {see  74).  Prepare 
a  series  ef  solutions  in  large  test-tubes  by  adding  i,  2,  3,  4, 
etc.,  cc.  of  this  solution  successively.  Add  5  cc.  of  the 
Soxhlel  solution  (192)  to  each,  heat  to  boiling,  boil  two 
minutes  and  filter.  Note  the  volume  of  sugar  solution  that 
gives  the  filtrate  lightest  in  tint  but  still  distinctly  blue. 
PJace  twenty  times  this  volume  of  the  solution  in  a  loo-cc. 
flask,  dilute  to  the  mark  and  mix  well.  Use  50  cc.  of  this 
solution  for  the  determination,  which  is  conducted  as  under 
the  preceding  method,  for  materials  containing  i  per  cent 
or  less   of   invert-sugar,    until    the    weight    of    copper   is 


82         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

obtained.     For  the  calculation  of  the  result  use  the  follow- 
ing formulae  and  table  of  factors  of  Meissl  and  Hiller: 

Let  Cu  =  the  weight  of  copper  obtained; 
P  =  the  polarization  of  the  sample; 
IV  =  the  weight  of  the  sample  in  the   50  cc.  of  the 

solution  used  for  the  determination; 
F=  the  factor  obtained  from  the  table  for  conver- 
sion of  copper  to  invert-sugar; 

—  =  approximate  absolute  weight  of    invert-sugar 

=  Z; 

100 
Z  X  -zzr  =  approximate  per  cent  of  invert-sugar  =_y; 
fV 

looP         „       ,     .  ,       , 

-— =  J?,  relative  number  for  sucrose; 

P  +  y 

100  —  P  =  /,  relative  number  for  invert-sugar; 

CuP 

W 


=  per  cent  of  invert-sugar. 


Z  facilitates  reading  the  vertical  columns;  and  the  ratio 
P  to  /,  the  horizontal  columns  of  the  table,  for  the  purpose 
of  finding  the  factor,  P,  for  the  calculation  of  the  copper  to 
invert-sugar. 

Example. — The  polarization  of  the  sugar  is  86.4,  and  3.256 
grams  of  it,  W,  are  equivalent  to  0.290  gram  of  copper. 
Then 

Cu       .200  ^ 

„  100  100 

^  X  ;^  =  . 145  X^;^^  =  4.45  =>•; 
I  OOP     _  8640         _  _ 

Jh=7~  86.4+ 4.45  ~^^*'~   ' 

100  —  p  =  100  —  95.1  =  /=  4.9; 
^:  7=95.1  :4.9. 

By  consulting  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  150  mg.  in 
the  vertical  column  are  nearest  the  value  of  Z,  145  mg.,  and 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   JUICE. 


83 


the  horizontal  column  headed  95  :  5  is  nearest  the  ratio  R 
to  /,  95.1:4.9.  Where  these  columns  meet  we  find  the 
factor  51.2  which  enters  into  the  final  calculation: 


CuF 
W 


.290  X  51-2 
3.256 


4.56  per  cent  of  invert-sugar. 


MEISSL  AND  KILLER'S  FACTORS    FOR   THE   DETERMINATION 
OF    MORE  THAN   1   PER  CENT  OF  INVERT  SUGAR. 


Ratio  of 

Sucrose  to 

Invert-sugar 

=  R'.I. 

Approximate  Absolute  Weight  of  Invert-sugar 

=  Z. 

200 
Milligr. 

175 
Milligr. 

150 
Milligr. 

125 
Milligr. 

100 
Milligr. 

75 
Milligr. 

50 
Milligr. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

Per  Ct. 

0:100 

56.4 

55.4 

54.5 

53.8 

53.2 

53.0 

53.0 

10:90 

56.3 

55.3 

54.4 

53.8 

53.2 

52.9 

52.9 

20:80 

.56.2 

55.2 

54.3 

53.7 

53.2 

52.7 

52.7 

30:70 

56.1 

55.1 

54.2 

53.7 

53.2 

52.6 

52.6 

40:60 

55.9 

55.0 

54.1 

53.6 

53.1 

52.5 

52.4 

50:50 

55.7 

54.9 

54.0 

53.5 

53.1 

52.3 

52.2 

60:40 

55.6 

54.7 

53.8 

53.2 

52.8 

52.1 

51.9 

70  :  30 

55.5 

54.5 

53.5 

52.9 

52.5 

51.9 

51.6 

80:20 

55.4 

54.3 

53.3 

52.7 

52.2 

51.7 

51.3 

90:10 

54.6 

53.6 

53.1 

52.6 

52.1 

51.6 

51.2 

91  :9 

54.1 

53.6 

52.6 

52.1 

51.6 

51.2 

50.7 

92:8 

53.6 

53.1 

52.1 

51.6 

51.2 

50.7 

50.3 

93:7 

53.6 

53.1 

52.1 

51.2 

50.7 

50.3 

49.8 

94:6 

53.1 

52.6 

51.6 

50.7 

50.3 

49.8 

48.9 

95:5 

52.6 

52.1 

51.2 

50  3 

49.4 

48.9 

48.5 

96:4 

52.1 

51.2 

50.7 

49.8 

48.9 

47.7 

46.9 

97:3 

50.7 

50.3 

49  8 

48.9 

47.7 

46.2 

45.1 

98:2 

49.9 

48.9 

48.5 

47.3 

45.8 

43.3 

40.0 

99:1 

47.7 

47.3 

46.5 

45.1 

43.3 

41.2 

38.1 

The  above  methods  have  been  taken,  with  a  few  changes 
in  the  wording  and  with  additions,  from  Bulletin  No.  46, 
U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture. 

Gravimetric  Method  using  SoIda'inV s  Solution.'^ — Place  100 
to  150  cc.  of  Soldaini's  solution  (103)  in  an   Erlenmeyer 


Traits d'' Analyse  des  Matiires  Sucrdes^  D.  Sidersky,  p.  148. 


84  HANDHOOK    FOR   SUGAU-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

flask;  boil  five  minutes;  add  a  solution  containing  lo  grams 
of  the  material  previously  clarified  with  subacetate  of  lead, 
if  necessary,  the  excess  of  lead  being  removed  with  small 
excess  of  carbonate  of  sodium  {see  74);  boil  five  minutes. 
In  boiling  always  use  the  naked  flame.  Having  completed 
the  reduction,  remove  the  flask  from  the  flame  and  add 
loo  cc.  cold  distilled  water.  Filter  immediately  through  a 
Gooch  crucible  and  determine  the  copper  in  the  precipitate 
by  the  electrolytic  method,  or  collect  the  precipitate  in  a 
filter-tube,  Fig.  40,  and  reduce  in  hydrogen.  These  methods 
are  described  on  page  79. 

The  weight  of  metallic  copper  X  0.3546  -i-  weight  of  the 
material  used  in  the  determination  X  100  =  per  cent  invert- 
sugar.  It  is  claimed  that  this  method  is  very  exact  and 
that  invert-sugar  can  be  determined  to  within  .01  per  cent 
with  certainty. 

73.  Deteriiiiiiatioii  of  Reducing  Sugars  (Glu- 
cose, etc.).  Volumetric  Methods.—^  Modification 
of  Violette's  Method. — This  is  the  rapid  method  used  very 
generally  in  cane-sugar-houses.  If  always  conducted 
under  the  same  conditions  as  to  dilution,  method,  and  time 
of  heating,  the  results  are  approximately  correct  and  are 
comparable  with  one  another. 

Take  a  definite  weight  of  the  juice,  a  multiple  of  5  grams 
is  most  convenient,  varying  this  quantity  with  the  amount 
of  reducing  sugar  present,  clarify  with  subacetate  of  lead, 
precipitate  the  excess  of  lead  with  small  excess  of  carbon- 
ate of  sodium  {see  74),  and  dilute  to  100  cc;  mix  and  filter. 

A  sufficient  quantity  of  the  juice  should  be  taken,  if  prac- 
ticable, to  give  a  reading  on  the  burette  of  approximately 
20  cc.  in  the  titration  to  be  described.  In  seed  selection, 
as  will  be  explained,  it  is  unnecessary  to  adhere  strictly  to 
these  specifications,  but  in  using  this  method  with  other 
products  they  should,  as  far  as  practicable,  be  complied 
with. 

It  is  convenient  in  this  work  to  use  an  automatic,  zero 
burette,  in  measuring  the  copper  solution.  Such  a  burette 
as  designed  by  Squibb  is  shown  in  Fig.  42.  This  burette 
is  filled  by  suction,  as  with  a  pipette,  applying  the  suc- 
tion at  the   mouthpiece   shown  at  the  end  of   the   rubber 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE   JUICE. 


85 


tube.  The  reagent  is  drawn  into  the  burette  to  a  point 
a  little  above  the  zero  mark,  the  mouthpiece  is  then 
released  and  the  liquid  siphons 
back  into  the  reservoir,  leaving 
the  burette  filled  to  exactly 
zero.  A  wash-bottle  containing 
caustic  soda  solution  should  be 
connected  with  the  air-inlet 
near  the  reservoir  to  prevent 
the  entrance  of  carbonic  acid. 
This  is  one  of  the  most  conven- 
ient of  the  many  forms  of  auto- 
matic burettes.  These  burettes 
may  be  used  with  advantage 
in  nearly  all  the  measurements 
required  in  volumetric  analysis, 
in  the  sugar-house  laboratory. 

Measure  lo  cc.  of  Violette's 
modification  of  Fehling  solution 
(195)  into  a  large  thin  glass 
test-tube,  1.5  X  9  inches  and  di- 
lute it  with  an  equal  volume  of 
water.  If  the  alkaline  copper  re- 
agent be  prepared  with  the  cop- 
per in  one  solution  and  the  alkali 
in  a  second,  use  10  cc.  of  each 
solution  and  omit  the  addition 
of  the  10  cc.  of  water.  Heat 
the  reagent  in  the  tube,  over 
the  naked  flame  of  a  lamp,  to  the  boiling-point,  then  add 
a  few  cubic  centimetres  of  the  sugar  solution,  and  boil 
two  minutes.  A  sand-glass  is  convenient  for  use  in 
timing  the  boiling.  Repeat  these  operations  until  the 
blue  color  almost  disappears,  taking  care  to  add  the 
juice  very  gradually  as  this  point  is  approached.  After  the 
first  boiling,  it  is  only  necessary  to  boil  the  liquid  a  few 
seconds  each  time.  Now  add  the  juice,  a  drop  or  two  at  a 
time,  until  the  blue  color  disappears.  Filter  off  a  small 
portion  of  the  liquid,  using  a  Wiley  or  Wiley-Knorr  filter- 
tube,  and  proceed  as  described  farther  on. 


Fig.  42. 


S6 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


Wiley's  filter-tubes,  Fig.  43,  a,  are  made  from  glass 
tubing  about  one  fourth  inch  in  diameter 
and  about  ten  inches  in  length.  One  end  of 
the  tube  is  softened  in  the  flame  of  a  lamp 
and  then  pressed  against  a  block  of  wood  to 
form  a  shoulder  ;  a  piece  of  washed  linen  is 
stretched  over  this  end  and  is  held  in  place 
by  means  of  a  strong  thread.  In  using  these 
tubes  the  filter  end  is  dipped  into  water  in 
which  very  finely  divided  asbestos  is  sus- 
pended, and  by  suction,  with  the  mouth,  the 
cloth  is  covered  with  a  film  of  this  substance. 
Knorr's  modification  of  these  tubes  is  very 
convenient,  and  is  preferred  by  many  chem- 
ists. These  filter-tubes,  Fig.  43,  <^,  are  of  small 
diameter  and  are  tipped  with  platinum-foil. 
The  asbestos  is  applied  as  with  the  Wiley 
tubes.  With  the  Wiley  filter,  the  filtrate 
must  be  poured  from  the  tube  ;  with  the 
Knorr  tube,  the  liquid  is  expelled  through 
the  platinum  tip,  after  wiping  off  the  asbes- 
tos with  a  cloth.  These  tubes  should  be 
dipped  in  dilute  acid  after  use,  then  thor- 
oughly washed. 

Many  chemists  prefer  to  remove  a  drop  of 
the  solution  and  place  it  on  a  piece  of  quan- 
titative filter -paper.  The  precipitate  re- 
mains in  the  centre  of  the  moistened  spot 
with  the  filtered  solution  around  it.  A  drop 
of  ferrocyanide  of  potassium  solution  acidu- 
lated with  acetic  acid  is  placed  adjacent  to 
the  first  drop.  There  will  be  a  coloration 
where  the  two  solutions  touch  one  another 
if  there  be  still  copper  in  solution. 

If  a  portion  of  the  solution  be  filtered  off  in 
one  of  the  tubes  above  described,  pour  it  into  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid,  to  acidity,  in  a  depression  in  a  white  porcelain 
test-plate  ;  the  acid  discharges  the  color  from  tha  solution 
and  neutralizes  the  alkali  of  the  Violette's  solution.  Add  a 
drop    of*  a    dilute  solution  of    ferrocyanide  of   potassium. 


Fig.  43. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  JUICE.  87 

yellow  prussiate  of  potash  ;  a  brown  coloration  shows  the 
copper  has  not  all  been  reduced,  and  that  more  juice  must 
be  added.  The  juice  must  be  added  very  carefully  as  the 
test  reaction  diminishes  in  intensity,  until  finally  all  the 
copper  is  reduced,  there  being  no  further  brown  colora- 
tion.    The  burette  reading  is  now  made. 

It  is  advisable  to  make  a  preliminary  test  to  guide  in  the 
dilution  of  the  juice  and  to  show  within  a  few  tenths  of  a 
cubic  centimetre  the  volume  of  juice  required  for  the  re- 
duction of  the  copper,  and  then  add  nearly  all  the  sugar 
solution  at  one  time  in  a  final  test. 

A  porcelain  dish  may  be  substituted  for  the  large  test- 
tube,    but   on    account   of   the    small  surface  exposed    for 
evaporation,  the  latter  is  preferred. 
Calculations. 
W  =  the  weight  of  juice  in  i  cc.  of  the  solution  ; 
B  =  the  burette  reading  ; 

D  .      A      •  0-05  X  loo 

Per  cent  reducing  sugar  =  x  =  . 

rr     /\   Jj 

When  ^  is  .05  gram  the  formula  reduces  to  jc  = — 

H 

or  j;  =  reciprocal  of  the  burette  reading  multiplied  by  100. 

A  table  of  reciprocals  is  given  on  page  294  to  simplify 
these  calculations. 

If  a  multiple  of  5  grams  of  juice  be  diluted  to  100  cc.  for 
this  determination,  the  reciprocal  of  the  burette  reading 
multiplied  by  100  is  the  same  multiple  of  the  percent  of  re- 
ducing sugar. 

If  5  grams  in  100  cc.  should  prove  a  too-concentrated  solu- 
tion, dilute  to  200,  300,  etc.,  and  multiply  100  times  the 
reciprocal  of  the  burette  reading  by  2,  3,  etc. 

If  5  cc.  or  a  multiple  of  5  cc.  of  juice  be  used  for  the  an- 
alysis, the  above-mentioned  method  of  calculation  may  be 
employed,  but  the  value  of  x  must  be  divided  by  the  spe- 
cific gravity  of  the  juice  to  reduce  it  to  terms  of  the  weight 
of  the  juice. 

On  account  of  the  very  small  percentage  of  reducing 
sugar  in  beet-juices  a  much  higher  burette  reading  than 
20  cc.  may  be  necessary,  even  using  the  undiluted  juice;  fur- 
ther, for  the  same  reason,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  only 


88         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

5  cc.  of  Violette's  solution.  It  is  preferable  in  such  cases  to 
use  a  gravimetric  method. 

The  accurate  determination  of  reducing  sugar  by  this 
method  requires  rapid  work  and  considerable  practice. 

Sidersky's  Volumetric  Method,  using  Soldaini's  Sohition} 
Standardize  the  Soldaini  solution  by  means  of  a  solution  of 
invert-sugar  containing  5  grams  of  the  reducing  sugars  per 
litre.  Proceed  as  in  73,  except  that  the  end  reaction  is 
judged  by  the  disappearance  of  the  blue  color  instead  of 
by  the  ferrocyanide  test.  The  method  described  in  73  is 
probably  applicable,  though  Sidersky  was  guided  solely  by 
the  disappearance  of  the  blue  color. 

This  method  has  the  advantage  of  freedom  from  the 
source  of  error,  due  to  the  presence  of  sucrose,  in  the  older 
method  of  Violette.  For  highly  colored  products,  such  as 
molasses,  etc.,  Sidersky  has  modified  his  method  as  fol- 
lows: Dissolve  25  grams  of  the  material  in  water,  add  suf- 
ficient subacetate  of  lead  for  clarification  {see  74),  dilute  to 
200  cc,  mix  and  filter.  To  100  cc.  of  the  filtrate  add  25  cc. 
of  a  concentrated  solution  of  sodium  carbonate,  mix  and 
filter;  of  this  filtrate  use  100  cc,  corresponding  to  10  grams 
of  the  material,  for  the  reduction.  Boil  100  cc.  of  Soldalni's 
solution  five  minutes  in  a  flask  over  a  naked  flame,  then 
add  the  sugar  solution,  little  by  little,  continuing  the  heat- 
ing an  additional  five  minutes.  Remove  the  flask,  add 
100  cc.  cold  distilled  water,  and  collect  the  precipitate  upon 
an  asbestos  felt  in  a  Gooch  crucible,  with  the  assistance  of 
a  filter-pump.  Wash  the  precipitate  with  hot  water  until 
the  wash-waters  are  no  longer  alkaline.  Three  or  four 
washings  are  usually  sufficient.  Wash  the  cuprous  oxide 
into  an  Erlenmeyer  flask  and  add  25  cc.  normal  sulphuric 
acid  (199)  and  two  or  three  crystals  of  chlorate  of  potas- 
sium, then  heat  gently  until  the  cuprous  oxide  is  completely 
dissolved.  Titrate  the  solution  with  a  standard  alkali 
solution  (201),  determine  by  diff^erence  the  volume  of 
the  acid  saturated,  and  from  this  the  amount  of  copper  re- 
duced. It  is  preferable  to  use  a  half-normal  solution  of 
ammonia  (201)  for  this  titration,  letting  the  sulphate  of 
copper  act  as  an  indicator.     Check  the  ammonia  solution 

*  Train d' Analyse  des  Matures  Sucrees,  D.  Sidersky,  p.  150. 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE  JUICE.  89 

against  the  normal  sulphuric  acid,  using  2  cc.  of  a  concen- 
trated solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  as  an  indicator  to 
25  cc.  of  the  ammonia.  Continue  the  addition  of  the  acid 
until  the  blue  color  disappears. 

In  making  the  titration  proceed  as  follows:  Cool  the 
sulphate  of  copper  solution,  resulting  from  the  treatment 
of  the  cuprous  oxide  with  the  normal  sulphuric  acid  and 
chlorate  of  potassium,  add  50  cc.  half-normal  ammonia  solu- 
tion and  titrate  back  with  the  normal  sulphuric  acid.  The 
blue  color  disappears  with  each  addition  of  the  acid,  but  re- 
appears on  stirring  the  solution  so  long  as  any  unsaturated 
ammonia  remains.  When  all  the  ammonia  is  saturated  the 
color  of  the  solution  is  no  longer  blue,  but  a  faint  green. 
Note  the  burette  reading.  Each  cc.  of  the  sulphuric  acid  is 
equivalent  to  .0317  gram  of  copper.  Multiply  the  weight 
of  copper  by  .3546,  Bodenbender  and  Scheller's  factor,  to 
obtain  the  weight  of  reducing  sugar  (invert-sugar),  or 
multiply  the  burette  reading  by  .1124  to  obtain  the  per  cent 
reducing  sugar. 

Volumetric  Permanganate  Method.^  The  saccharine 
strength  of  the  solution  should  be  approximately  one  per 
cent.  The  solution  should  be  clarified  as  usual,  and  the 
excess  of  lead  removed  (74).  Ten  cubic  centimetres  of 
this  solution  are  placed  in  a  porcelain  dish  with  a  consider- 
able excess  of  copper  solution  (102).  If  the  saccharine 
solution  contain  no  sucrose,  heat  to  the  boiling-point  and 
maintain  this  temperature  until  the  reducing  sugar  is  oxi- 
dized. When  sucrose  is  present  the  temperature  should 
not  exceed  80°  C,  and  the  heating  should  be  continued 
longer  than  at  the  higher  temperature.  There  should  be 
enough  of  the  copper  solution  used  to  maintain  a  strong 
blue  coloration  at  the  end  of  the  reaction.  Ervin  E.  EwelP 
advises  using  the  following  modification  of  the  method  of 
determining  the  weight  of  copper  reduced:  Collect  the 
precipitate  on  asbestos  in  a  Gooch  crucible,  with  the  as- 
sistance of  a  filter-pump,  and  wash  thoroughly  with  hot 
recently  boiled  distilled  water.    Transfer  the  asbestos,  with 

*  Principles  and  Practice  0/  Agricultural  Analysis^  H,   W.  Wiley,  3, 

134- 
»  Op.  cit.y  136. 


90         HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

as  much  of  the  precipitate  as  possible,  to  the  beaker  in  which 
the  precipitation  was  made,  beat  it  up  with  25  to  30  cc.  of 
hot  recently  boiled  distilled  water,  and  add  from  50  to  75  cc. 
of  a  saturated  solution  of  ferric  sulphate  in  20  per  cent  sul- 
phuric acid;  pour  this  solution  through  the  crucible  to  dis- 
solve adhering  portions  of  the  cuprous  oxide.  The  precipi- 
tate must  be  well  beaten  up  with  the  water  to  break  all  large 
lumps  or  there  may  be  difficulty  in  effecting  solution  with  the 
ferric  salt.  After  the  solution  is  complete,  titrate  with  per- 
manganate of  potassium  of  such  strength  that  i  cc.  is  equiv- 
alent to  .01  gram  of  copper  (203),  or  decinormal  perman- 
ganate solution  (202)  may  be  used.  In  addition  to  stand- 
ardizing the  permanganate  solution  with  metallic  iron  or 
oxalic  acid,  as  is  usual  for  general  purposes,  it  should  be 
standardized,  for  this  method,  by  titrations  with  copper, 
reduced  by  solutions  of  invert-sugar  which  have  been  stand- 
ardized by  the  gravimetric  method  (72).  The  invert-sugar 
value  of  I  cc.  of  the  permanganate  solution  is  thus  ascer- 
tained for  use  in  calculating  the  percentage  of  reducing 
sugar  in  the  material. 

Ewell's  modification  of  the  permanganate  method  of 
determining  the  amount  of  reduced  copper,  is  also  recom- 
mended for  use  in  the  methods  in  72, 

74.  Notes  on  the  Deterniiiiation  of  Reducing 
Sng"ars. — Edson,  Pellet  and  other  chemists  have  shown 
that  a  part  of  the  reducing  substances  in  certain  sugar- 
house  products  is  precipitated  by  subacetate  of  lead,  but 
not  at  all  or  to  a  very  small  extent  with  the  normal  acetate. 
Edson  advises  that  the  solutions  be  acidulated  with  acetic 
acid  before  filtering  oft"  the  lead  precipitate,  and  finds  that 
acidulation  practically  obviates  this  source  of  error.  The 
author's  experience  confirms  Edson's  observations.  Born- 
trSger  '  states  that  sodium  sulphate  is  preferable  to  sodium 
carbonate  for  the  precipitation  of  the  excess  of  lead.  Ac- 
cording to  his  experiments,  an  excess  of  the  sulphate  is 
less  objectionable  than  of  the  carbonate.  The  carbonate  is 
almost  exclusively  used  by  sugar-house  chemists  for  the 
removal  of  the  excess  of  lead. 

*  Zeit,  Angew.  Chem.,  1892,  333. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  JUICE. 


91 


75.  Determination  of  the  A^\\,— Sulp hated  Ash.— 

)ty  lo  grams  of  the  juice  in  a  tared  platinum  dish.     Add  a 

drops   of  concentrated   sulphuric   acid   to  moisten   the 

ndue,  and  heat  over  the  flame  of  a  lamp  or  in  a  muffle  at 

redness  until   the  organic  matter  is  charred,  then  in- 

;ase  the  temperature  to  bright  redness  and  heat  until  all 

le  carbon  is  consumed.     In  the  event  of  too  high   a  tem- 

srature,  the  ash  will  melt  and  thus  may  vitiate  the  results. 

The  ash  so  obtained  is  termed  the  "  sulphated  ash,"  since 

ertain    of    the    mineral    constituents   are    converted    into 

llphates  by  the  acids.     It  is  estimated   that  the  average 

icrease  in  the  weight  of  the  ash,  due  to  the  formation  of 

mlphates   instead   of   carbonates,  is    lo   per  cent,   hence  a 

>rrection  of  one  tenth  is  customary  to  reduce  the  sulphated 

fcSh  to  terms  of  the  normal   or  carbonated  ash. 

Calculation. — Weight  of  ash  X  9  =  per  cent  normal  ash. 

tt  is  usually  more  convenient  to  measure  lo  cc.  of  the  juice 

lan  to  weigh  lo  grams.     In  such  cases  calculate  as  follows  : 

Weight  of  sulphated  ash  X  9 
Specific  gravity  of  the   juice 

The  above  method  of  incineration 
1$  usually  employed,  since  there  is 
isually  difficulty  in  the  direct  inciner- 
don  of  saccharine  materials. 
Normal  Ash. — The  normal  or  car- 
bonated ash  may  be  obtained  by  Bey- 
er's method,  as  follows  :  Dry  lo  grams, 
or  lo  cc,  of  the  juice  in  a  platinum 
dish,  then  heat  carefully  to  caramelize 
the  sugar,  but  not  enough  to  char  it; 
add  2  cc.  benzoic  acid  solution,  25 
grams  benzoic  acid  in  100  cc.  of  90  ^ 
alcohol,  and  warm  gently  to  expel  the 
alcohol.  Char  the  sugar  at  a  low 
heat,  at  the  same  time  volatilizing  the 
acid  ;  incinerate  at  a  low  red  heat. 
The  ash  consists  largely  of  alkaline 
carbonates,  which,  on  exposure  to  the  air,  quickly  absorb 
moisture.     Cool  the  ash  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh  quickly. 


per  cent  normal  ash. 

Fig.  44. 


Fig.  45. 


[;■ 


Fig.  46. 

1 

4. 

1 
T 

i 

1 

1  ©' 

... 

— , 

92         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

The  weight  of  the  ash   -r-  the  weight  of  the  juice   X  loo 
=  per  cent  ash. 

The  following  described  muffle,  devised  by  Schweitzer 
and  Lungwitz,^  is  effective,  and  may  be  cheaply  constructed 
for  sugar  purposes. 

In  a  French  clay  muffle  a  narrow  slot  is  cut  the  length  of 
the  bottom,  Fig.  44,  a,  b  ;  holes  are  drilled  in  the  walls  atr, 
</,  Fig.  45,  and  heavy  platinum  wires  are  inserted.  These 
wires  are  supports  for  a  trough  of  platinum-foil,  Fig.  45,  w, 
x,y,  z,  upon  which  the  dishes  rest  during  the  incineration. 
A  hole  is  cut  in  the  dome  of  the  muffle  at  t,  Fig.  46.  The 
muffle  is  placed  on  a  support  and  is  heated  by  wing-top 
burners. 

76.  Determination  of  the  Total  Nitrogen 
Albuminoids. — The  beet  contains,  in  addition  to  albu- 
minoid matter,  several  nitrogenous  substances  classified  as 
amido-compounds.  Some  of  these  substances  may  be  read- 
ily separated,  others  require  complicated  analytical  proc- 
esses. For  an  extended  study  of  the  nitrogenous  bodies 
in  agricultural  analysis,  Wiley's  Principles  and  Practice  of 
Agricultural  Analysis  is  recommended.  Allen  gives  methods 
for  several  of  the  amido-compounds  in  Vol.  Ill,  Part  III, 
Commercial  Organic  Analysis.  E.  O.  von  Lippmann  has 
published  a  very  exhaustive  study  of  the  nitrogenous  con- 
stituents of  the  beet-juice  in  Berichteder  deutschen  chemischen 
Gesellschaft,  29,  2645.  A  translation  of  this  paper  is  pub 
lished  in  Bulletin  de  V Association  des  Chimistes  de  France^  14, 
6gi  and  8iq.  See  also  this  book,  page  201.  It  has  long  been 
customary  in  plant  analysis  to  multiply  the  per  cent  of  total 
nitrogen  by  6.25  and  term  the  product  the  per  cent  of 
"albuminoids."  The  figures  obtained  in  this  way  are  often 
of  value  in  sugar-house  work. 

A  modification  of  Kjeldahl's  moist  combustion  process' 
may  be  conveniently  employed  for  nitrogen  determinations  : 

(i)  The  Digestion. — Ten  cc.  of  the  juice,  dried  in  a  small 
capsule,  are  brought  into  a  550-cc.  digestion-flask  with 
approximately  .7   gram    of    mercuric   oxide  and   20  cc.  of 

^Journ.  Am.  Chem.  Soc,  16,  151 

»  Adapted  from  Bulletin  46,  Div.  Chem.,  U.  S.  Dept.  Agric. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE   JUICE.  93 

sulphuric  acid.  The  flask  is  placed  on  a  frame  in  an  in- 
clined position,  and  heated  below  the  boiling-point  of  the 
acid  for  from  5  to  15  minutes,  or  until  frothing  has  ceased. 
If  the  mixture  froth  badly,  a  small  piece  of  paraflSne  may- 
be added  to  prevent  it.  The  heat  is  then  raised  until  the 
acid  boils  briskly.  No  further  attention  is  required  till  the 
contents  of  the  flask  have  become  a  clear  liquid,  which  is 
colorless,  or  at  most  has  only  a  very  pale  straw  color.  The 
flask  is  then  removed  from  the  frame,  held  upright,  and, 
while  still  hot,  potassium  permanganate  is  dropped  in  care- 
fully and  in  small  quantity  at  a  time,  till,  after  shaking, 
the  liquid  remains  of  a  green  or  purple  color. 

(2)  The  Distillation. — After  cooling  the  contents  of  the 
flask,  add  about  200  cc.  of  water,  then  a  few  pieces  of  gran- 
ulated zinc  and  25  cc.  of  potassium-sulphide  solution,  40 
grams  commercial  potassium-sulphide  in  1000  cc.  water, 
shaking  the  flask  to  mix  its  contents.  Next  add  50  cc.  of  a 
saturated  caustic-soda  solution,  free  from  nitrates,  or  suf- 
ficient to  make  the  reaction  strongly  alkaline,  pouring  it 
down  the  side  of  the  flask  so  that  it  does  not  mix  at  once 
with  the  acid  solution.  Connect  the  flask  with  the  con- 
denser, which  should  be  of  block-tin,  mix  the  contents  by 
shaking,  and  distil  until  all  the  ammonia  has  passed  over 
into  the  standard  acid.  The  first  150  cc.  of  the  distillate  will 
generally  contain  all  of  the  ammonia.  This  operation  usually 
requires  from  40  minutes  to  one  hour  and  a  half.  The  dis- 
tillate is  then  titrated  with  standard  ammonia,  using  cochi- 
neal as  an  indicator,  and  the  calculations  are  made  as  usual. 
Previous  to  use,  the  reagents  should  be  tested  by  a  blank 
experiment  with  sugar,  which  will  partially  reduce  any 
nitrates  present,  which  might  otherwise  escape  notice. 

77.  Determination  of  the  Total  Solids.— The 
degree  Brix  is  usually  considered  as  representing  the  total 
solid  matter  in  solution.  An  accurate  determination  of  the 
total  solids  can  only  be  made  by  actually  drying  the  juice  in 
an  oven. 

The  problem  of  drying  saccharine  materials,  to  a  constant 
weight,  is  not  as  simple  as  may  appear  at  first  glance.  A 
number  of  methods  have  been  devised  for  this  purpose, 
two  of  which  are  given. 


94         HAKDfiOOK  FOR  StJGAR-fiOUSE  GfiEMlSTS. 


.Carr  and  Sanborn'' s  Method  for  Drying  Sugar-house  Prod- 
ucts ,-^T\i\s  is  a  modification  of  the  ordinary  pumice-stone 
method.  Prepare  pumice-stone  in  two  sizes.  One  size 
should  pass  a  i-mm.  sieve  and  the  other  should  pass  a  6- 
mm.  sieve,  circular  perforations.  Place  a  layer  3  mm.  thick 
of  the  finer  pumice-stone  on  the  bottom  of  a  small  metal 
dish,  and  a  layer  of  the  coarse,  6  mm.  to  10  mm.  thick,  upon 
the  first  layer,  and  dry  and  weigh.  Tin  caps  for  bottles  are 
inexpensive  and  well  adapted  for  use  in  this  determination. 


Fig.  47. 
Each  dish  is  used  but  once,  then  thrown  aside.  Distribute 
about  5  grams  of  juice  over  the  pumice-stone,  weighing  it 
accurately  from  a  weighing-bottle.  Dry  this  juice  to  a 
constant  weight  in  a  water-oven  or  in  a  vacuum-oven  at  no° 
C,  making  trial  weighings  at  intervals  of  two  hours. 
Calculation  :  Weight  of  solid  matter  -r-  weight  of  juice  em- 
ployed X  100  =  per  cent  total  solids. 

Method  of  Drying  Employing  a  Vacuum  Apparatus. — This 
method  was  suggested  to  the  author  by  that  of  Courtonne,' 
from  which  it  differs  in  several  important  particulars,  no- 
tably in  the  construction  of  the  oven  and  drying-bottles. 
Courtonne  heats  the  bottles  by  immersion  in  hot  water. 

^Manuel-Agenda  des  Fabricants  de  iSucre,  MM.  Gallois  and  Dupont, 
1891,  p.  215. 


AKALYSIS   OF  THE  JUICE.  95 

The  oven  and  bottles  are  shown  in  section  in  Fig.  47. 
The  walls  of  the  oven  are  double  and  are  filled  with  plaster 
of  Paris,  C;  the  bottom  is  also  double,  the  space* being  filled 
with  air.  A  fan,  £>,  driven  by  a  toy  engine,  or  other  suit- 
able means,  agitates  the  air  inside  the  oven  and  insures  a 
strictly  uniform  temperature  in  all  parts. 

The  drying-bottles.  A,  are  connected  by  means  of  short 
tubes  with  a  central  vacuum-pipe,  JS,  which  is  in  turn  con- 
nected with  an  ordinary  filter-pump  or  the  third  pan  of  the 
triple-effect.  Each  bottle  may  be  removed  by  closing  the 
cock  G  without  disturbing  the  others.  A  small  trap,  //,  of 
glass,  shown  also  in  detail  at  the  right  of  the  oven,  pre- 
vents any  moisture  which  may  condense  in  the  tubes  from 
falling  back  into  the  bottle. 

The  following  procedure  is  advised  :  Place  a  quantity  of 
small  fragments  of  pumice-stone  suflScient  to  absorb  5  cc. 
of  juice,  in  a  weighing-bottle,  dry  in  the  oven,  cool,  insert 
the  glass  stopper  and  weigh  ;  distribute  a  definite  weight  of 
the  juice,  approximately  5  grams,  upon  the  pumice-stone. 
Insert  the  stopper,  provided  with  the  trap,  in  the  bottle,  and 
connect  with  the  vacuum-pipe.  A  vacuum  of  20  inches  is 
usually  all  that  is  required,  and  in  fact  is  preferable  to  a 
higher  vacuum.  The  drying  is  usually  complete  in  one 
hour;  it  is  advisable  to  dry  to  a  practically  constant  weight, 
weighing  at  intervals  of  one  hour  or  more  as  may  be  con- 
venient. The  calculations  are  made  as  in  the  preceding 
meihod. 

This  apparatus  may  also  be  used  for  drying  in  an  inert 
gaa. 

The  per  cent  total  solids  by  the  spindle,  the  degree  Brix, 
and  the  per  cent  total  solids  by  drying,  are  employed  in 
calculating  the  purity  coeflScients  or  quotients  (106). 

78.  Acidity  of  the  Juice. — The  normal  juice  of  the 
beet  and  the  diffusion-juice  are  always  acid.  This  acidity 
is  due  to  a  number  of  organic  acids.  It  is  not  often  neces- 
sary to  determine  the  acidity  of  the  juice.  This  determi- 
nation is  made  by  a  titration  with  a  decinormal  alkali 
solution  (201).  It  is  somewhat  difficult  to  determine  the 
end  reaction,  since  the  color  of  the  juice  obscures  the  color 
of  the  indicator  to  some  extent.  Phenolphthalein  is  usually 
Employed   as   the    indicator.      Collier    recommended    the 


96         HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

use  of  logwood  solution  as  an  indicator  in  determining  the 
acidity  of  sugar-cane  juices,  and  in  the  author's  experience 
it  has  been  satisfactory. 

The  acidity  may  be  expressed  in  terms  of  the  number  of 
cubic  centimetres  of  normal  alkali  solution  required  to  neu- 
tralize the  juice  or,  for  comparative  purposes,  more  conven- 
iently as  cubic  centimetres  of  normal  alkali  per  loo  grams 
of  sucrose  or  lOO  degrees  Brix. 

79.  Analysis  of  Carbonated  Juices.  —  The 
methods  of  analysis  of  the  purified  juices  are  the  same  as 
for  the  raw  juice,  except  that  the  carbonated  juice  must 
receive  an  additional  treatment  with  carbonic  acid  to  pre- 
cipitate all  of  the  calcium.  This  is  evidently  necessary, 
since  these  analyses  are  made  in  part  for  the  purpose  of 
comparing  the  purity  of  these  juices  with  that  of  the 
diffusion-juice  before  treatment. 

80.  Alkalinity  of  the  Juice.— It  is  occasionally 
necessary  to  determine  the  total  alkalinity  of  the  juice  after 
liming  and  before  carbonatation;  it  is  also  necessary  at  very 
frequent  intervals  to  determine  the  total  alkalinity  of  the 
carbonated  juices,  in  the  control  of  the  carbonatation  process. 
In  many  factories  an  alkalimetric  method  is  employed  in 
ascertaining  when  to  shut  off  the  carbonic  acid  gas  in  the 
carbonatation  of  each  tankful  of  juice. 

The  total  alkalinity  is  usually  expressed  in  terms  of 
the  grams  of  lime  (CaO)  per  litre  of  juice,  although  the 
alkalinity  is  in  part  due  to  the  presence  of  caustic 
alkalis. 

Methods  are  usually  employed,  in  the  control  of  the  car- 
bonatation of  the  juice,  which  are  very  rapid  and  well 
adapted  to  the  use  of  unskilled  employes,  but  which  yield 
only  moderately  accurate  results  (81). 

It  is  advisable  that  the  rapid  methods  indicated  be  occa- 
sionally checked  in  the  laboratory.  This  is  necessary  in 
order  to  know  to  what  extent  the  results  vary  from  the 
truth,  that  the  carbonatation  may  be  the  more  satisfactorily 
controlled. 

81.  Rapid  Methods  of  Moderate  Accuracy  for 

the  Alkalinity,  of  Juices.— (i)  Standard  Add  Solution. 
— Prepare  a  standardized  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  contain- 


AlfALTSIS   OF  THE  JUICE.  97    ' 

ing  35  grams  of  the  monohydrated  acid  (HjSO*)  in  looo  cc. 
{See  200.)  The  strength  of  this  solution  is  such  that  i  cc. 
will  neutralize  0.02  gram  of  lime  (CaO). 

This  solution  is  used  for  limed  juices  and  juice  from  the 
first  carbonatation.  A  more  dilute  acid  is  employed  for  the 
titration  of  juice  from  the  second  carbonatation.  This 
acid  is  prepared  by  diluting  100  cc.  of  the  above  standard 
acid  to  1000  cc,  and  contains  3.5  grams  of  sulphuric  acid  in 
1000  cc. 

Indicators. — As  great  accuracy  is  not  necessary  in  this 
determination,  indicators  which  are  more  or  less  affected 
by  carbonic  acid  may  be  employed.  Among  those  most 
commonly  used  are  neutralized  corallin,  phenolphthalcin, 
cochineal,  etc.  A  few  drops  of  the  solution  of  the  indicator 
are  added  to  the  juice,  or  in  this  class  of  analyses,  with  cer- 
tain indicators,  more  conveniently  to  the  acid  solution,  when 
standardizing  it,  and  before  completing  the  volume  to  1000 
cc.     {See^lS,) 

Titration. — Measure  20  cc.  of  the  juice  into  a  porcelain 
dish  or  into  a  small  Erlenmeyer  flask.  If  the  flask  be  used, 
it  should  be  placed  over  a  sheet  of  white  paper  or  a  por- 
celain slab  during  the  titration. 

Except  in  the  case  of  the  limed  juice,  before  carbonata- 
tion, the  liquor  should  be  filtered. 

Add  a  few  drops  of  the  indicator  to  the  juice,  if  it  be  not 
already  contained  in  the  standard  acid,  and  deliver  the  acid 
cautiously  from  a  burette.  Note  the  point  when  the 
alkalinity  is  saturated  by  the  change  in  the  color  of  the 
indicator,  and  read  the  burette. 

Calculation. — I  cc.  of  stronger  acid  solution  neutralizes 
0.02"  gram  of  lime  (CaO);  hence  for  each  cc.  of  acid  used 
there  is  an  alkalinity  corresponding  to  0.02  gram  of  lime 
per  20  cc.  of  juice,  or  to  o.i  gram  per  100  cc.  of  juice,  or 
I  gram  per  litre  of  juice. 

Example. — 20  cc.  of  juice  required  2.2  cc.  of  the  acid. 
.'.  0.02  X  2.2  X  50  =  2.2  grams  lime  per  litre  of  juice,  or  the 
number  of  cc.  of  acid  used  =  grams  of  lime  per  litre. 

The  calculations  are  the  same  when  using  the  weaker 
acid  with  second  carbonatation  juices,  except  that  i  cc.  of 
the  acid  <:ofresponds  to  0.002  gram  of  lime. 

/. 


98 


HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


(2)  Vivien's  Method. — This  exceedingly  convenient  and 
simple  method  is  employed  very  generally  in  France.  Like 
the  preceding  method,  it  only  gives  approximately  correct 
results.  Vivien  employs  a  solution  of  sulphuric  acid  con- 
taining a  small  quantity  of  phenolphthalein,  of  such  strength 
that  one  volume  of  this  acid  will  neutralize  one  volume  of 
juice  containing  .05  gram  of  lime  per  litre,  i.e.^  total 
alkalinity  expressed  as  lime  (CaO). 

A  specially  graduated  tube  shown  in  Fig.  48  is  used  with 
this  method.     This  tube  is  divided  into  six  parts  of  equal 
_         volume.       Each    part  except   the  bottom  one  is 
subdivided  into  five  parts. 

Acid  Solution. — Prepare  a  standardized  solu- 
tion of  sulphuric  acid  containing  0.875  gram  of 
the  monohydrated  acid  (H2SO4)  in  1000  cc;  add 
a  small  quantity  of  phenolphthalein  to  the  solu- 
tion before  completing  the  volume  to  1000  cc. 
Standardize  by  titration  against  decinormal  alkali 
solution;  10  cc.  of  the  alkali  should  neutralize 
56  cc.  of  this  solution. 

Manipulations. — Fill  the  tube,  Fig.  48,  to  the 
zero  mark  with  juice;  add  the  standardized  acid 
cautiously,  placing  the  thumb  over  the  mouth  of 
the  tube  and  agitating  from  time  to  time.  The 
solution  turns  red  at  the  first  addition  of  the 
acid,  provided  it  be  not  added  in  excess;  finally, 
when  the  acid  is  in  very  slight  excess,  the  color 
disappears.  The  reading  on  the  scale  is  next 
made.  Every  ten  divisions  correspond  to  an 
alkalinity  due  to  i  gram  of  lime  per  litre  of  juice, 
•  48-  j^jj(j  each  division  to  o.i  gram  of  lime  (CaO.)  per 
litre. 

For  second  carbonatation  juice,  use  a  much  more  dilute 
acid;  for  example,  one  half  or  one  fifth  the  strength  of  the 
above.  In  this  case  every  ten  divisions  of  the  scale  cor- 
respond to  0.5  gram  or  0.2  gram  of  lime  per  litre. 

It  is  evident  that  these  methods  are  susceptible  of  many 
modifications,  but  for  the  purposes  of  this  book  those 
described  are  sufficient. 

These  methods  must  be  used  with  caution  in  analyzing 


25 


so- 


ls: 


10— 


5=:^ 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   JUICE.  99 

the  juice  from  the  second  carbonatation,  for  the  reasons 
given  below. 

It  is  the  practice  in  the  second  carbonatation  to  saturate 
all  the  lime;  hence  this  process  is  often  termed  the 
"  saturation."  If  this  point  be  passed,  the  caustic  sodium 
and  potassium,  which  remain  as  such  in  the  presence  of  the 
caustic  lime,  are  converted  into  carbonates.  This  is  wrong, 
from  manufacturing  considerations,  and  further  it  would 
be  objectionable  to  leave  lime  unprecipitated.  It  is  thus 
apparent  that  a  process  should  be  employed  which  will 
show  the  exact  moment  at  which  all  the  lime  has  been 
combined  with  the  carbonic  acid.  In  practice  it  is  usual  to 
ascertain,  in  the  laboratory,  approximately  the  alkalinity  the 
juice  should  have  when  the  lime  has  all  been  precipitated, 
and  be  guided  by  this  in  the  control  of  the  carbonatation. 

The  use  of  phenacetoline  is  said  to  be  an  advantage  in 
this  test.  It  is  used  in  the  cold.  Degener  recommends 
the  use  of  a  few  drops  of  a  i  per  cent  solution  of  phenace- 
toline   in   alcohol. 

82.  Methods  for  the  Deteriiiiiiatioii  of  the 
Total  Calcium  iii  the  Juice.— Gravimetric  Method.— 
To  ICO  cc.  of  the  juice  add  an  excess  of  ammonium  hydrate, 
heat  to  the  boiling-point  and  filter,  should  there  be  a  pre- 
cipitate. Wash  the  filter  with  hot  water,  add  an  excess  of 
oxalate  of  ammonium  to  the  filtrate,  boil  two  hours,  and 
let  stand  several  hours  ;  collect  the  precipitate  in  a  small 
quantitative  filter  and  wash  with  dilute  ammonia.  The 
filter  and  contents  are  next  transferred  to  a  tared  platinum 
crucible,  partly  dried  and  the  filter  charred  at  a  low  tem- 
perature, then  ignited  until  the  carbon  is  removed.  Add  a 
small  quantity  of  sulphate  of  ammonia  solution  containing 
chloride  of  ammonia  (see  136),  dry  at  a  moderate  heat,  and 
ignite  at  a  high  temperature.  The  residue  consists  of  sul- 
phate of  calcium  (CaSOi).  Cool  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh. 
The  weight  of  the  calcium  sulphate  multiplied  by  .41158  is 
the  weight  of  calcium  oxide  (lime)  per  100  cc.  of  juice. 
This  number  is  practically  the  percentage  of  calcium  oxide 
(CaO)  by  weight  in  the  juice,  or  the  correct  percentage  is 
this  number  divided  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  juice. 


100      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Fradiss'  Volumetric  Method.' — Treat  loo  cc.  of  juice  as 
described  under  the  preceding  method.  Decompose  the 
oxalate  of  calcium  with  warm  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  The 
acid  combines  with  the  calcium  and  sets  the  oxalic  acid 
free.  The  oxalic  acid  is  determined  by  means  of  a  i/io 
normal  solution  of  permanganate  of  potassium  (202). 

Titrate  the  solution  without  filtering,  maintaining  a  tem- 
perature of  60°  to  80°  C.  The  addition  of  the  permanganate 
solution  should  be  continued  until  a  permanent  pink  color 
is  produced. 

Calculation. — Multiply  the  burette  reading,  the  cc.  per- 
manganate solution,  by  0.0028  to  obtain  the  weight  of  cal- 
cium oxide  (CaO),  or  by  0.002  to  obtain  the  weight  of  cal- 
cium (Ca).  The  numbers  so  obtained  are  the  per  cents  by 
volume  of  the  juice.  Divide  by  the  specific  gravity  of  the 
juice  to  obtain  the  corresponding  per  cents  by  weight. 

Soap  Method. — This  is  an  application  of  Clarke's  soap 
test,  used  in  estimating  the  hardness  of  water.  The  total 
percentage  of  calcium  as  calcium  oxide  (CaO)  may  be 
rapidly  and  closely  estimated  by  this  method.  As  used  by 
the  French  it  is  more  convenient  for  sugar-house  purposes 
than  the  English  method. 

Chloride  of  Calcium  or  Barium  Solution. — Dissolve  0.25 
gram  of  pure  chloride  of  calcium  or  0.55  gram  of  pure 
crystallized  barium  chloride  (BaCla  +  2H3O)  in  water  and 
dilute  to  I  litre. 

Special  Burette. — The  burette  is  so  graduated  that  2.4  cc. 
correspond  to  23  divisions.  The  zero  of  the  graduation 
is  placed  at  the  second  division  to  allow  for  the  quantity  of 
soap  solution  required  to  produce  a  permanent  lather  with 
40  cc.  of  distilled  water;  the  22  divisions  correspond  to  o.oi 
gram  of  chloride  of  calcium  dissolved  in  distilled  water: 
hence  a  division  or  1°  corresponds  to  0.00045  gram  of  the 
chloride  in  40  cc,  or  0.0114  gram  per  litre. 

Special  Bottle. — This  bottle  is  graduated  at  10,  20,  30,  and 
40  cc.  Only  two  of  these  graduations,  viz.,  at  10  and  40  cc, 
are  used  in  sugar  work. 

Method  of  Making  the  Test. — Introduce  40  cc.  of  the  cal- 
cium chloride  or  barium  chloride  solution  into  the  special 

*  Bulletin  de  P Assoc,  des  Chimistes  de  France,  14,  22. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE   JUICE.  101 

bottle,  and  add  the  soap  solution  {see  186)  little  by  little, 
with  agitation,  until  a  foam  5  mm.  deep  forms  and  persists 
during  5  minutes.  The  solution  must  be  vigorously  agi- 
tated by  shaking  the  stoppered  bottle  after  each  addition  of 
the  soap.  If  the  soap  solution  be  of  the  correct  strength, 
a  volume  corresponding  to  22  divisions  of  the  burette  is 
required.  The  burette  should  always  be  filled  to  the 
division  above  the  zero  mark,  and  the  reading  should  be 
from  zero.  If  the  reading  be  not  22°,  add  sufficient  cold, 
recently  boiled  distilled  water  to  dilute  it  to  this  strength. 

To  ID  cc.  of  the  juice  in  the  special  bottle,  add  sufficient 
cold,  recently  boiled  distilled  water  to  dilute  it  to  40  cc. 
Proceed  as  above,  using  the  standarized  soap  solution. 
Multiply  the  number  of  *'  degrees  "  read  on  the  burette  by 
0.0228  to  calculate  the  lime  (CaO)  per  litre  of  juice.  This 
method  may  be  applied  to  the  sirup,  massecuites,  and 
molasses,  using  i  gram  of  the  material  diluted  to  40  cc. 

See  page  171  relative  to  the  influence  of  magnesia  in  this 
test.  The  presence  of  magnesia,  resulting  from  dolomite 
in  the  limestone,  may  vitiate  the  results  obtained.  Parallel 
determinations  by  the  soap  and  the  gravimetric  methods, 
or  an  examination  of  the  lime,  will  show  whether  sufficient 
magnesia  is  present  to  render  this  process  unavailable. 
This  method  is  not  applicable  to  the  juice  from  the  first  car- 
bonatation. 

83.  Free  and  Combined  Lime  and  Alkalinity 
Due  to  Caustic  Alkalis.  Pellet's  Method.' — 
A.  Determine  the  total  alkalinity  by  titration  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  using  litmus  as  an  indicator.  The  titration 
must  be  made  at  the  boiling-point  of  the  juice.  Calculate 
the  alkalinity  as  lime  per  100  cc.  of  juice. 

B.  Add  an  equal  volume  of  strong  alcohol  to  a  measured 
portion  of  the  juice;  the  "free"  lime  is  precipitated  as  an 
insoluble  saccharate  of  lime;  filter  and  determine  the  alka- 
linity of  the  filtrate  operating  upon  an  aliquot  part;  calcu- 
late as  lime  per  100  cc.  of  juice.  This  alkalinity  is,  however, 
due  to  sodium  and  potassium  hydrates,  but  is  expressed  as 
lime  for  comparative  purpos2S.      -7 


Fabrication  du  Suc*-e   Per.uc^et,   Pallet,  etc,  >18<  joi. 


102       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

C.  The  total  lime  is  determined  by  one  of  the  methods  in 
82,  and  is  also  expressed  as  lime  per  loo  cc.  of  juice. 
The  following  example  illustrates  the  calculations: 

Example. 

As  Lime  per  loocc. 

\A)  Total  alkalinity 0.027  gram. 

{B)  Alkalinity  due  to  soda  and  potassa 0.021      " 

(C)  Total  lime,  including  organic  salts 0.023      " 

Free  lime  (^  -  ^) 0.006      " 

Combined  lime, /..?.,  lime  salts  (C—[^—j9])..  0.017      '*        \ 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE    SIRUP. 

84.  Analysis  of  the  Sirup.— The  analysis  of  the 
sirup  is  conducted  as  that  of  the  juice  (67  to  83);  the  same 
determinations  are  made,  the  only  variations  being  in  the 
quantities  of  the  material  used  for  the  analysis. 

All  the  portions  used  for  analysis  should  be  weighed, 
not  measured.  This  is  necessary  on  account  of  the  viscos- 
ity of  the  sirup. 


:  ANALYSIS   OF   THE   MASSECUITES   AND 
MOLASSES. 

85.  Deteriiiiiiation  of  the  Density. — The  deter- 
mination of  the  density  of  massecuites  presents  certain 
difficulties  which  cannot  well  be  avoided,  and  which  com- 
pel the  acceptance  of  results  which  are  not  strictly  accurate. 

As  has  been  explained,  the  degree  Brix  of  a  solution  is 
the  percentage,  by  weight,  of  pure  sugar  which  it  contains, 
but  it  is  usually  taken  as  the  percentage  of  solid  matter  in 
the  solution.  The  use  of  a  spindle  or  pyknometer  for  the 
determination  of  the  degree  Brix,  assumes  the  impurities 
in  the  solution,  or  the  non-sucrose,  to  have  the  same  specific 
gravity  as  sucrose.  This  assumption,  unfortunately  for  the 
convenience  of  th,e  caerni^i,  is  far  from  true,  especially  in 
the  densei»products  and  in  those  from  which  a  part  of  the 
sugar  has  been  removed,  viz.,  the  second,  third,  etc.,  mas- 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  MASSECUITES  A^B  MOLASSES.    103 

secuites  and  the  molasses.  The  mineral  impuruic*  Influ- 
ence the  specific  gravity  very  materially,  since  they  differ 
so  widely  in  specific  gravity  from  the  sugars.  Since  the 
proportion  of  inorganic  non-sugar  increases  as  one  passes 
from  the  products  of  high  purity  to  those  of  low  purity,  the 
difference  between  the  apparent  percentage  of  total  solids, 
as  indicated  by  the  density,  and  the  true  percentage  of  total 
solids,  becomes  greater. 

From  this,  it  is  apparent  that  calculations  of  the  total 
solids  in  massecuites,  etc.,  from  the  density  of  the  product, 
must  be  accepted  with  caution,  and  then  only  for  compara- 
tive purposes,  when  uniform  conditions  of  analysis  are 
maintained. 

The  methods  by  dilution  and  spindling  are  given  in 
this  book  for  calculating  approximate  coefl5cients,  etc.,  and 
must  not  be  assumed  to  give  strictly  accurate  results. 
•'■  It  is  customary  to  term  the  degree  Brix,  as  deduced  from 
the  specific  gravity  of  the  material,  the  "apparent  degree 
Brix,"  or  simply  the  "degree  Brix";  the  term  "true  or 
real  degree  Brix"  is  sometimes  applied  to  the  percentage 

-of  total  solids,  when  this  number  is  determined  by  actually 

^drying  the  material  in  an  oven. 

86.  Determination  of  the  Density  by  Dilu- 
tion and  Spindling.  Apparent  Degree  Brix.— 
Dissolve  250  grams  of  the  massecuite  or  molasses  in  water 
and  dilute  to  500  cc.  Transfer  a  portion  of  the  solution  to 
a  cylinder  and  determine  its  degree  Brix.  Calculate  the 
degree  Brix  of  the  product  used  by  the  following  formula  : 

Apparent  degree  Brix  =  — — , 

in  which  B  is  the  degree  Brix  (corrected)  of  the  solution, 
S/>.  Gr.  the  specific  gravity  corresponding  to  the  degree 
Brix  of  the  solution  before  correction,  V  the  volume  of  the 
solution,  and  ^  the  weight  of  massecuite  used. 

The  above  formula  reduces  to  the  following  if  the  weight 
and  volume  specified  have  been  used  : 

Apparent  degree  Brix  =  2  X  Sp.  Gr.  X  B. 

The  following  is  a  very  convenient  modification  of  th^ 
above  method  : 


104       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Dissolve  a  definite  weight  of  massecuite  in  an  equal 
weight  of  water,  mix  the  solution  thoroughly,  and  spindle. 

The  degree  Brix  of  the  massecuite  is  two  times  the 
degree  Brix  of  the  solution.  {See  also  88,  Weisberg's 
method.) 

87.  Determination  of  the  Total  Solids  or 
Moisture  by  Drying.— The  method  of  Carr  and  San- 
born, and  the  vacuum  method  given  in  77,  are  recom- 
mended. In  the  latter  case  use  i  gram  of  the  massecuite, 
and  in  both  methods,  after  weighing  the  material,  dissolve 
it  in  a  small  quantity  of  distilled  water,  in  order  to  dis- 
tribute it  evenly.  In  the  Carr-Sanborn  method,  dilute  the 
sample  to  content  of  about  20  to  30  per  cent  dry  matter, 
using  a  weighed  portion  of  water.  Add  such  quantity  of 
the  diluted  material  to  the  pumice-stone,  in  the  tared  dish, 
as  will  yield  approximately  i  gram  dry  matter. 

88.  Approximate  Determination  of  the  Total 
Solids  and  Coefficient  of  Purity  of  Massecuite, 
etc.,  by  Dilution  and  Spindling.  Weisberg's 
Method.' — This  is  the  ordinary  method  by  dilution  and 
spindling,  but  conducted  under  certain  definite  conditions, 
under  which  a  table  of  coefficients,  deduced  by  Weisberg 
from  a  very  large  number  of  experiments,  is  used. 

Weigh  three  times  the  normal  weight,  or  any  convenient 
multiple  of  the  normal  weight,  of  the  massecuite  and  dissolve 
it  in  water;  transfer  the  solution  to  a  300-cc.  flask,  or  to  a 
flask  corresponding  to  the  multiple  of  the  normal  weight  of 
massecuite  used,  and  dilute  to  the  graduation.  Mix  the  solu- 
tion thoroughly  and  determine  its  degree  Brix,  using  a  spin- 
dle graduated  to  twentieths  of  a  degree.  Transfer  50  cc.  of 
the  solution,  corresponding  to  the  half-normal  weight  of  the 
massecuite,  to  a  flask,  clarify  with  subacetate  of  lead,  dilute 
to  100  cc,  mix  and  filter.  Polarize  the  filtrate,  and  multiply 
the  polariscopic  reading  by  2  to  compensate  for  the  dilu- 
tion. This  gives  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  masse- 
cuite. In  materials  containing  notable  quantities  of  raffin- 
ose,  etc.,  use  the  method  of  Creydt  (89)  to  ascertain  the 
per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  massecuite.  The  methods  of 
calculation  are  most  conveniently  explained  by  an  example. 

*  Bui.  Asfoc.  ChimUtes  de  France,  14,  978. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  MASSBCVlTES  AND   MOLASSES.   105 


Example  and  Formula  for  Calculations, 
Weight  of  massecuite  {2\  times  the  normal)  =    65.12  gram 

Volume  of  the  solution =  250  cc. 

Degree  Brix  of  the  solution  =  B =    22 

Specific  gravity  corresponding  to  the  degree 

Brix  {see  table  page  275)  =  Z> =      i. 09231 

Polariscopic  reading  X  2  =  ^ =    55- 

Constant  (normal  weight  -r-  100) =        .26048 

,  ^    R  X  0.26048  .       ,       ..,        .       , 

(i)    — ^—  =  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  diluted  solu- 
tion, S\ 

(2)    —  X  100  =  apparent  coefficient  of  purity  (106)  of  the 
solution  and  of  the  massecuite. 

WEISBERG'S  TABLE  OF  COEFFICIENTS. 


Coefficient  of 
Purity. 

Coefficients. 

•    Apparent 
Coefficient  of 
Purity. 

Coefficients. 

57 

1.054 

78 

1.021 

57.5 

1.(^2 

79 

1.020 

58 

1.050 

80 

1.019 

58.5 

1.048 

81 

1.018 

59 

1.046 

82 

1.017 

60 

1.044 

83 

1.016 

61 

1.042 

84 

1.015 

62 

1.040 

85 

1.014 

63 

1.038 

86 

1.013 

64 

1.036 

87 

1.012 

65 

1.034 

88 

1.011 

66 

1.033 

89 

1.010 

67 

1.032 

90 

1.009 

68 

1.031 

•     91 

1.008 

69 

1.030 

92 

1.007 

70 

1.029 

93 

1.006 

71 

1.028 

94 

1.005 

72 

1.027 

95 

1.004 

73 

1.026 

96 

1.003 

74 

1.025 

97 

1.002 

76 

1.024 

98 

1.002 

78 

1.023 

99 

1.001 

77 

1.022 

100 

1.000 

106      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

The  letters  have  the  values  indicated  in  the  statement  of 
the  example  and  in  equation  (i). 

(3)  Multiply  the  apparent  coefficient  of  purity  by  the  co- 
efficient corresponding  to  it  in  Weisberg's  table  to  obtain 
the  true  coefficient  of  purity  of  the  massecuite. 

(4)  The  true  per  cent  total  solids  of  the  massecuite  is 
deduced  by  dividing  its  percentage  sucrose  by  the  true  co- 
efficient of  purity  and  multiplying  by  100. 

Substituting  the  values  of  -^and  D  in  formula  (i)  we  have 

R  X  0.26048       55  X  0.26048 

= =  13.12  =  S\ 

D  I. 09231 

and  substituting  the  values  of  ^  and  5  in  formula  (2)  we  have 

S  13.12 

B^  ^°° ^~^^  X  100  =  59.64, 

apparent  purity  of  the  massecuite;  and  from  (3), 

59.64  X  1.045  =  62.32, 

the  approximately  true  purity  of  the  massecuite. 

-         - '     R 

From  (4), X  100  =  88.25,  the  approximately  true  per 

cent  of  total  solids  in  the  massecuite. 

In  checking  this  method  by  actual  drying  of  the  above 
massecuite,  Weisberg  obtained  a  true  purity  of  62.02.  Thiy 
sample  was  a  very  severe  test  of  the  method  owing  to  the 
low  purity  of  the  massecuite, 

Weisberg  constructed  his  table  from  experimental  data, 
obtained  in  the  examination  of  massecuites  produced  with- 
out "  boiling  in  "  molasses,  as  is  now  practised  to  a  consider- 
able exteiit.  With  massecuite  obtained  by  "boiling  in" 
molasses  on  first-sugar,  it  is  possible  that  the  method  may 
not  give  as  satisfactory  results  as  indicated  in  the  example. 

89.  Detenninatidii  of  Sucrose  and  RafRnose. 
Creyclt'sForillulse. — This  is  the  official  German  method ;' 
it  is  that  of  Clerget,  as  published  by  the  German  Govern- 
ment, except  that  the  acidulation  of  the  solution  for  direct 
polarization  is  recommended.  This  method  is  not  applicable 
in  the  presence  of  optically  active  bodies  Other  than  sucrose 
and  raffinose.  Percentages  of  raffinose  less  than  0.33  cannot 
be  determined  with  certainty  by  the  inversion  methods. 

\  Zeit,  Rubenzucker  -Industrie,  38,  867. 


AKALYSIS   OF  THE  MASSECUITES  AKD  MOLASSES.   107 

Dissolve  the  normal  weight  of  the  material  in  water, 
clarify  as  usual,  and  dilute-to  loo  cc.  Filter,  and  polarize 
the  filtrate  at  20°  C.  Record  the  polarization  as  the  "  direct 
reading."  It  is  recommended  that  this  solution  be  slightly 
acidulated  with  acetic  acid  before  diluting  to  100  cc. 

Dissolve  13.024  grams  of  the  substance  in  75  cc.  of  water, 
in  a  loo-cc.  flask,  and  add  5  cc.  hydrochloric  acid  containing 
38.8  per  cent  of  the  acid,  mix  the  contents  of  the  flask  by  a 
circular  motion,  and  place  it  on  a  water-bath  heated  to  70'  C. 
The  temperature  of  the  solution  in  the  flask  should  reach  67° 
to  70"  C.  in  two  and  one  half  to  three  minutes.  Maintain  a 
temperature  of  as  nearly  69"  C.  as  possible  for  seven  to  seven 
and  one  half  minutes,  making  the  total  time  of  heating  ten 
minutes.  Remove  the  flask  and  cool  the  contents  rapidly 
to  20'^  C,  and  dilute  the  solution  to  100  cc.  If  necessary 
treat  the  solution  with  i  gram  of  dry  bone-black  (180)  to 
decolorize  it.  Polarize  in  a  tube  provided  with  a  lateral 
branch  for  the  insertion  of  a  thermometer.  A  tube,  provided 
with  a  jacket,  through  which  a  current  of  water  of  20°  C. 
circulates,  should  be  used.  The  invert  reading  should  be 
made  at  20°  C,  and  be  multiplied  by  2.  If  a  preliminary  cal- 
culation, using  the  formula,  per  cent  sucrose  =0.7538  X 
sum  of  the  direct  and  invert  readings,  give  a  percentage 
which  is  more  than  i  per  cent  higher  than  the  direct  read- 
ing, raffinose  is  probably  present,  and  the  following  formulae 
by  Creydt  should  be  used  in  making  the  calculations  : 

P=  the  direct  reading,  z.^?.,  the  polarization  before  in- 
version ; 
/=  the  invert  reading  ,  multiplied  by  2. 
S  =  the  percentage  of  sucrose  ; 
R  =  the  percentage  of  anhydrous  raffinose. 

G.5i88iP-/  P-S 

•J  "—^  ;; 1    J^  — '::. —  • 

0.845  1.85 

It  is  very  important  in  this  process  that  the  time  and 
temperature  conditions  be  strictly  complied  with.  The 
amount  of  material  used  should  be  varied,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  substance,  that  the  invert  solution  may  have 
a  concentration  of  approximately  13.7  grams  rn  loa  cc.r 
i.e.,  the  invert-sugar  produced  in  the  inversion  of  13.024 


108      HANDBOOK   POR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

grams  of  sucrose.  The  value  of  the  constants  varies  con- 
siderably with  the  concentration  (j-^f  267). 

90.  DetermiDation  of  Sucrose  and  Raffinose. 
Lindet's  Inversion  Method  as  Modified  by 
Courtonne.  —  Courtonne^  has  slightly  modified  the 
method  of  Lindet'^  in  order  to  facilitate  the  manipulations. 

Dissolve  the  normal  weight  of  the  material  in  water  and 
dilute  to  IOC  cc.  Transfer  50  cc.  of  this  solution  to  a  50-cc. 
flask  and  add  sufficient  dilute  subacetate  of  lead  solution 
(20.7);  acidulate  with  acetic  acid;  mix,  filter,  and  polarize 
the  filtrate.  Increase  the  polariscopic  reading  one  tenth 
and  record  as  the  direct  reading  (A). 

Transfer  20  cc.  of  the  original  solution  of  the  material  to 
a  50-cc.  flask,  and  add  to  it  5  grams  of  zinc-dust.  The  dust 
must  be  weighed.  Heat  the  flask  and  contents  by  immer- 
sion in  boiling  water  or  in  the  steam  from  a  water-bath. 
Add  10  cc.  of  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  in  portions  of  about 
2  cc.  at  a  time,  being  careful  that  none  of  the  liquid  is  lost 
through  a  too  rapid  addition  of  the  acid.  The  portions  of 
acid  may  be  added  as  frequently  as  convenient.  The  dilute 
acid  is  prepared  by  adding  an  equal  volume  of  distilled 
water  to  pure  hydrochloric  acid  of  1.2  specific  gravity. 

In  the  original  method  of  Lindet,  it  is  specified  to  heat 
the  contents  of  the  flask  on  the  boiling-water  bath  about 
20  minutes.  In  the  modified  method,  it  is  only  necessary  to 
heat  a  few  minutes  after  the  last  addition  of  acid. 

The  quantity  of  acid  is  so  gauged  that  a  portion  of  the 
zinc  is  left  undecomposed  and  occupies  a  volume  of  .5  cc, 
for  which  a  correction  must  be  made  in  the  calculations. 

After  the  inversion  is  completed,  cool  the  solution,  either 
by  immersing  the  flask  in  cold  water  or  by  setting  aside  to 
cool  slowly.  When  the  temperature  reaches  20°  C.  com- 
plete the  volume  to  50  cc,  mix  and  filter.  Polarize  the 
filtrate  in  an  observation-tube  provided  with  a  lateral 
branch  for  the  insertion  of  a  thermometer.  Multiply  the 
reading  by  2.475  if  a  20-centimetre  observation-tube  were 
used.  This  factor  includes  a  correction  for  the  volume  of 
the  excess  of  zinc  used.     The  polarization  should  be  made 

*  Bui.  Assoc.  Chiniistes  de  France ^  7,  232, 
9  Op.  cii.,  supra,  7,  432. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   MASSECUITES   AND   MOLASSES.    109 

it  20°  C.    Caculate  the  percentages  of  sucrose  and  raffinose 
by  the  following  formulae: 

A  =  the  direct  reading,  i.e.^  before  inversion  ; 
B  =  the  invert  reading,  corrected  to  terms  of  the  nor- 
mal weight ; 
C  —  the  sum  of  the  direct  and  the  indirect  reading  ; 
S  =  the  per  cent  sucrose  ; 
R  =  the  per  cent  raffinose. 

The  first  set  of  formulae  is  for  the  Laurent  polariscope, 
instruments  whose  normal  weight  is  16.29  grams,  and  the 
second  set  for  the  Schmidt  and  Haensch  polariscope,  in- 
struments whose  normal  weight  is  26.048  grams : 
Set  No.  I  : 

^     '  0.81  ^      '  1.54 

Set  No.  2  : 

(i)  s  = ^P^—  ;  (2)  i?  = =  1.017^ -. 

^  '  0.827  1-57  1.298 

In  the  formulae,  R  is  the  percentage  of  hydrated  raffinose. 
To  obtain  the  percentage  of  anhydrous  raffinose  substitute 
1.84  for  1.54  in  the  denominator  in  the  first  set  of  formulae 
and  1.85  for  1.57  in  the  second  set. 

The  invert  solutions  by  this  method  are  perfectly  colorless 
and  require  no  bone-black  or  other  treatment  preparatory 
to  polarization. 

This  process  is  only  applicable  to  materials  containing 
no  optically  active  bodies  other  than  sucrose  and  raffinose. 
As  beet  products,  under  normal  conditions,  rarely  contain 
reducing  sugars,  this  process  is  generally  applicable  in  all 
beet  work. 

The  formulae  given  in  the  set  No.  i  are  those  of  Creydt, 
modified  by  Lindet. 

The  correction  for  the  space  occupied  by  the  undecom- 
posed  zinc-dust,  is  based  upon  the  fact  that  only  enough 
hydrochloric  acid  is  used  to  decompose  a  certain  quantity 
of  zinc.  If  the  quantities  of  acid  and  zinc  indicated  be 
used,  there  will  be  sufficient  excess  of  zinc  to  occupy  a  vol- 
ume of  nearly  .5  cc. 


110       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOtJSE   CHEMISTS. 

The  author  prefers  to  use  a  solution  of  hydrochloric  acid, 
standardized  by  means  of  a  normal  alkali  solution.  The 
acid  should  be  measured  from  a  burette.  It  is  conducive  to 
accuracy  to  use  a  flask  graduated  at  50.5  cc,  and  an  obser- 
vation tube  50  centimetres  long.  To  insure  an  observation 
at  20°  C.  a  tube,  provided  with  a  water-jacket,  through 
which  water  of  that  temperature  flows,  is  necessary. 

The  great  advantage  claimed  for  Lindet's  method  is  that 
it  permits  the  inversion  at  the  boiling-point  of  water  with- 
out decomposition  of  the  resultant  products.  Further,  the 
matter  of  the  time  element  is  very  much  simplified,  since 
while  the  inversion  is  complete  in  less  than  twenty  minutes, 
there  is  no  perceptible  decomposition  of  the  invert-sugar 
on  heating  a  much  longer  time. 

This  method,  in  common  with  other  inversion  methods, 
has  been  the  subject  of  much  investigation  and  discussion. 
The  evidence  appears  to  be  largely  in  favor  of  the  methods 
of  inversion  given  in  89  and  92, 

91.  Determination  of  Sucrose  and  Raffinose 
in  the  Presence  of  Reducing  Sugars.— J.  Wortman  > 
recommends  the  following  method  for  this  determination  : 

The  reducing  sugar  is  determined  by  the  method  with 
alkaline  copper  solution  on  page  8i,  using  the  following 
formulae  for  the  calculation  : 

N  =  per  cent  reducing  sugar; 
]  Cu  =  the  weight  of  copper  reduced; 

f  =  the  weight  of  material  employed; 

The  value  of  A^  is  substituted  in  the  following  equations: 

0.9598/'  -  1.85/"  —  o.277iV 


I.   Per   cent    sucrose  =  S  = 
II.    Per  cent  raffinose  =  /? 


1.5648 
F  —  5  +  o.3io3A^ 


1.85 

in  which  P  is  the  direct  polarization  and  P'  is  the  invert 
reading.  These  formulae  are  based  upon  the  work  of 
Herzfeld  and  are   for  the  normal  weight  of  26.048  grams. 

*  Zeii.  Riibenzucker -Industrie^  39,  766. 


ANALYSIS    OP  THE  MASSECUITES   AKD   MOLASSES.    lU 

The  inversion,  as  far  as  concerns  time,  temperature,  and 
acid,  is  made  as  in  section  89. 

92.  Determination  of  Sucrose  in  the  Pres- 
ence of  Reducing  Sugars,  Clerget's  Method.— 

In  this  modified  method  of  Clerget,  as  adopted  by  the 
Association  of  Official  Agricultural  Chemists,  the  direct 
and  invert  readings  are  obtained  as  in  89.  The  readings, 
especially  if  much  reducing  sugar  be  present,  should  both 
be  made  at  very  nearly  the  same  temperature.  This 
temperature  should  not  vary  more  than  two  or  three  de- 
grees from  2o°  C.  The  readings  should  be  made  at  20°  C. 
if  practicable,  in  which  case  the  following  formula  is  used  : 

^  100  .S" 

Per  cent  sucrose  = — — -  =  o.^ssS.S', 

142.66 --2/  '^-^ 

in  which  iT  is  the  algebraic  difference  of  the  direct  and  in- 
vert readings. 

Should  the  temperature  (/)  vary  from  20°  C,  use  the  fol- 
lowing formula  : 

100^ 

Percent  sucrose  =  — . 

142.4  -  |/ 

Certain  important  precautions  are  given  in  89  in  con- 
nection with  this  method. 

Since  beet  products  obtained  under  normal  conditions 
rarely  contain  appreciable  quantities  of  reducing  sugars, 
and  the  very  low  products  probably  always  contain  raffi- 
nose,  the  methods  of  Creydt,  preferably,  or  of  Lindet  (89, 
90)  are  usually  employed. 

All  inversion  methods  are  usually  spoken  of  as  '*  Clerget's 
method,"  from  the  chemist  who  devised  the  original  proc- 
ess of  which  all  are  slight  modifications. 

93.  Determination  to  be  made  in  the  Analy- 
sis of  Massecuitesand  Molasses.— All  the  determina- 
tions required  in  the  analysis  of  the  sirups  are  also  to  be 
made  in  the  massecuite  and  molasses.  The  methods  for 
sucrose  and  raffinose  are  those  given  in  89  to  92. 

The  scheme  given  in  the  next  paragraph  is  convenient 
for  use  in  this  class  of  work. 

94.  Scheme  for  the  Analysis  of  Massecuite* 
and  Molasses,  Adapted  from  Sidersky's  Method. 


112       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

— In  order  that  Weisberg's  table  of  coefficients  may  be 
available  (see  page  104),  the  quantity  of  material  he  advises 
should  be  used. 

Dissolve  78.144  grams  of  massecuite  in  distilled  water, 
dilute  the  solution  to  300  cc,  and  use  portions  of  it  for  the 
various  determinations. 

Determine  the  per  cent  sucrose,  the  apparent  and  true 
coefficients  of  purity  (106),  and  the  apparent  and  true  de- 
grees Brix  by  Weisberg's  method  (88). 

For  the  determination  of  the  ash,  evaporate  19.2  cc.  of 
the  solution  (5.0012  grams  of  the  material)  nearly  to  dry- 
ness. Multiply  the  corrected  weight  of  the  ash  by  20  to 
obtain  the  per  cent  of  ash.  The  slight  excess  of  material 
used  over  5  grams  does  not  introduce  an  appreciable  error 
even  in  low-grade  molasses. 

For  the  determination  of  the  alkalinity,  use  a  measured 
volume  of  the  solution,  remembering  that  each  cubic  centi- 
metre corresponds  to  0.26048  gram  of  the  material.  Use  the 
methods  in  05. 

95.  Alkalinity  of  Massecuites  and  Molasses.— 
It  is  often  necessary  to  determine  the  alkalinity  of  masse- 
cuites, and  occasionally  of  the  molasses. 

These  products  are  often  very  dark,  rendering  it  difficult 
to  employ  a  volumetric  method.  The  following  method 
devised  by  Buisson '  gives  satisfactory  results  in  very 
highly  colored  products:  Transfer  25  cc.  of  a  solution  of  the 
material  to  be  titrated,  to  a  glass-stoppered  flask,  add  one 
drop  of  a  neutral  solution  of  corallin  and  10  cc.  of  washed 
ether.  The  ether  must  be  neutral.  After  each  addition  of 
the  standard  acid  (see  81  et  seq.),  agitate  thoroughly  and 
wait  a  few  seconds  for  the  ether  to  separate  and  rise  to  the 
surface.  The  slightest  excess  of  acid  reacts  upon  the 
corallin  and  colors  the  ethereal  solution  yellow.  This 
reaction  is  very  sharp. 

The  alkalinity  is  calculated  as  lime  (CaO),  percentage  by 
weight.  The  methods  given  in  80  to  83  are  also  applica- 
ble to  these  products. 

96.  Estimation  of  the  Proportion  of  Crystal- 
lized Sugar. — Many  of  the   methods  of  estimating   the 

■  ■  '  Bulletin  de  V Assoc,  des  Chimistes  de  France^  9,  597. 


ANALYSTS  OF   THE   MASSECUITES   AND   MOLASSES.    113 

proportion  of  crystallized  sugar,  in  sugars  and  massecuites, 
were  suggested  by  Scheibler's  modification  of  Payen's 
method  for  estimating  the  refining  values  of  raw  sugars. 

In  this  method  the  crystals,  in  the  weighed  sample,  are 
washed  with  successive  portions  of  the  following  solutions: 
(1)  85  per  cent  alcohol  containing  50  cc.  acetic  acid  per  litre 
and  saturated  with  sugar;  (II)  and  (III)  92  and  96  per  cent 
alcohol,  respectively,  saturated  with  sugar;  (IV)  absolute 
alcohol;  and  (V)  one  third  ether  and  two  thirds  absolute 
alcohol.  The  residual  sugar  is  washed  into  a  sugar-flask 
and  its  content  of  sucrose  determined  by  the  polariscope. 

This  method  is  no  longer  used,  but  is  given  in  outline  for 
historic  reasons  and  because  it  suggested  other  methods 
which  are  in  use. 

Pellet  devised  a  somewhat  similar  method,  using  first  a 
saturated  solution  of  pure  sugar  and  afterwards  saturated 
alcoholic  sugar  solutions,  of  increasing  alcohol  content,  to 
wash  the  crystals.  The  sugar  crystals  are  finally  dried 
and  weighed. 


IFlG.  49. 
The  following  described   methods,  of  which  the  author 
•prefers  Dupont's,  are  the  most  practical: 
Vivien's  Method. — Place  a  weighed   quantity  of  mass©' 


114       HANDBOOK  FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

cuite  in  the  funnel  E,  Fig.  49,  of  the  pressure  filtering 
apparatus  ;  for  example,  200  grams.  The  funnel  is  fitted 
with  a  perforated  filtering-cone,  as  indicated  by  the  dotted 
line.  Connect  the  apparatus  with  a  filtering-pump,  Chap- 
man's or  other  simple  model,  by  the  tube  V.  Wash  tl.e 
crystals  with  a  cold  solution  of  sugar  containing  2  parts  of 
pure  sucrose  to  i  part  of  distilled  water.  The  pressure  is 
regulated  by  raising  or  lowering  the  tube  A,  which  dips 
into  mercury  in  the  cylinder  B.  The  material  in  the 
funnel  should  always  be  covered  with  the  wash-liquor. 
Continue  the  washing  until  all  the  crystals  are  free 
from  molasses,  then  transfer  them  to  a  tared  dish,  mix 
thoroughly  and  weigh.  Determine  the  moisture  in  10 
grams  of  the  crystals  by  drying  as  usual  in  an  oven. 
Since  the  wash-liquor  contained  i  part  water  and  2  parts 
of  sucrose,  the  loss  in  weight  on  drying  multiplied  by  3 
gives  the  weight  of  the  liquor  adhering  to  the  crystals. 

Example  and  Calculations, 

Weight  of  massecuite 200  grams 

Weight  of  moist  crystals 176.5     ** 

Moisture  in  10  grams  of  the  crystals.       0.56  '* 

Then  — ^  =9.884  grams  water  in  the  moist  crys- 
tals, and  9.884  X  3  =  29.652,  the  weight  of  the  wash-liquor 
adhering  to  the  crystals. 

176.5  -  29.652  ,  ,  „.      , 
=  73-43  grams  of  dry,  crystallized  sugar  in 

100  grams  of  massecuite. 

Karcz'  Method.'^ — This  method,  as  applied  to  raw  sugar, 
consists  in  dissolving  the  adhering  molasses  in  pure  anhy- 
drous glycerine  and  filtering  off  a  portion  of  the  solution 
for  polarization.  The  polarizations  of  the  raw  sugar  and 
of  the  glycerine  solution  supply  the  data  for  the  calcula- 
tions. The  apparatus  shown  in  Fig.  50  is  used  for  the 
filtration.  The  application  of  the  method  to  massecuite  is 
given  farther  on. 

Since  anhydrous  glycerine  is  very  hygroscopic,  it  must 

1  Zeit.  Rubenzucker'Industrie,  31,  500. 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   MASSECUITES   AND   MOLASSES.    115 


be  protected  from  the  moisture  in  the  air  at  each  stage  of 
the  analysis. 

Weigh  30  to  50  grams  of  the  sugar 
and  transfer  to  a  glass  dish  contain- 
ing an  equal  weight  of  glycerine. 
Mix  intimately  with  a  glass  rod, 
and  place  in  a  desiccator  containing 
fused  calcium  chloride  or  concen- 
trated sulphuric  acid.  Repeat  the 
mixing  from  time  to  time,  until  the 
crystals  are  well  separated  and  the 
molasses  uniformly  distributed  in  the 
glycerine  solution.  This  requires 
fifteen  minutes  and  upwards.  Place 
a  plug  of  dry  filtering-cotton  in  the 
funnel  of  the  apparatus  (Fig.  50), 
transfer  the  mixture  to  the  funnel, 
and  replace  the  cover.  Filter  under 
pressure,  u^ing  a  filter-pump.  The 
mixture  is  protected  from  moisture, 
during  filtration,  by  chloride  of  cal- 
cium tubes,  as  shown  in  the  figure.  Fig.  50, 

Polarize  the  normal  weight  of  the  filtrate.  Karcz'  *  for- 
mula has  been  shown  to  be  inexact;  hence  the  corrected 
formula  is  given. 


Formula  for  the  Calculations. 

X  =  sucrose  in  the  molasses  attached  to  the  crystals  ; 

/*  =  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  raw  sugar  ; 

/  =  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  glycerine  filtrate  ; 

200  —  P  ,      „  ,  ,  , 

x  = p,     and     /* —  .;tr  =  the  percentage   of   crystal- 

100  -  p  ^ 

lized  sugar. 
Example. — Polarization  of  the  raw  sugar  =  95.6  ;  polari- 
zation of  the  filtrate  =  6.75. 

200  —  05. 6 
x=^^---^X  6.75  =7-55,     and     95.6  -  7.55  =  88.05.  the 

percentage  of  crystallized  sugar. 


*  Zaitschri/t /.  Zuckerindustrit  Bohem.,  Jan.  1895. 


116      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

Perepletchikow '  recommends  the  following  procedure 
with  massecuites  : 

Transfer  the  normal  weight  of  the  massecuite  treated 
with  an  indefinite  quantity  of  pure  anhydrous  glycerine,  as 
described  above,  to  the  funnel  of  Karcz'  apparatus,  and 
filter  off  the  glycerine  solution.  Wash  the  crystals  with 
repeated  portions  of  glycerine,  until  the  filtrate  is  no 
longer  colored.  Remove  the  funnel  from  the  apparatus 
and  wash  the  crystals  into  a  sugar-flask,  dissolve,  and 
polarize.  The  polariscopic  reading  is  the  percentage  of 
sugar  crystals  in  the  massecuite. 

Perepletchikow  made  comparative  tests  of  the  various 
methods,  with  the  results  given  in  the  following  table  : 

,— Crystals  per  cent— «  Time  required 

MAthnH                              Massecuite.  for  Making 

juemoa.                 Massecuite  Massecuite  the  Analysis. 

No.  1.  No.  2.  Minutes. 

-    Washing  with  sugar  j        -,.  -  go  ^ 

*•      solution                      S"     '*•  ** 

2.  Pellet. 69.8  60.7  60 

3.  Washing  with  glycerine  .70  60.8  60 

4.  Dupont 71.1  61.6  *         45 

5.  Siderskya 71  61.5  150  ' 

6.  Karcz 70  60.6  60 

7.  Perepletchikow 70.1  61.3  30 

Actual  percentage  of  I         r-n  a  ai  i 

crystals  present        f"     *"'*  '**•* 

Duponfs  Method^ — Heat  a  quantity  of  massecuite  of 
known  polarization,  500  grams,  for  example,  to  85°  C. 
and  centrifugal  in  a  small  machine,  such  as  is  constructed 
for  laboratory  purposes.  The  wire  sieve  of  the  centrifugal 
machine  should  be  covered  with  thin  flannel.  Dry  the 
sugar  as  thoroughly  as  possible.  Determine  the  percent- 
age of  sugar  in  the  molasses  with  the  polariscope.  Calcu- 
late the  percentage  of  crystallized  sucrose  by  the  following 
formula,  in  which  a  =  the  polarization  of  the  massecuite  \ 
p  =  polarization  of  the  crystals  ;  /'  =  polarization  of  the 

'  Zapiski,  1894,  18,  346;  Abstract  in  Bulletin  de  V Association  des  Chi- 
fnistes,  1/J,  407. 

*  jc  :  100  =  a  :  i,  la  which  jc  =  sugar  adhering  to  the  crystals;  a  =  per 
cent  ash  (sulphated)  in  the  massecuite;  6  =  per  cent  ash  in  the  molasses, 
obtained  by  filtration  ;  100  —  jr  =  per  cent  crystallized  sugar  in  the 
massecuite. 

•  Manuel-Agenda  des  Fabricants  de  Sucre^  1891,  p.  293. 


I       ANALYSIS  OF  THE  MASSECUITES  AKD   MOLASSES.    117 

molasses  ;  and  x  —  the  weight  of  crystallized  sucrose  in  a 
unit  of  the  massecuite  : 

a  —  p' 

X  =  ^ -,    and    looo:  =  the  per  cent  of  crystallized  sucrose 

/— / 

in  the  massecuite. 

Example. 

Polarization  of  the  massecuite  =  84.5  =  a 
Polarization  of  the  molasses     =  60.6  =/' 

The  crystals  may  be  considered  to  be  pure  sugar;  hence 
p  =  100. 

Substituting  in  the  formula,  we  have 

84.5  —  60.6 


100  —  60.6 


=  0.6066,  and  looji:  =  100  X  0.6066  =  60.66, 


the  percentage  of  crystals  in  the  massecuite. 

Dupont's  formula  is  applicable  to  the  calculation  of  the 
crystallized  sugar  in  the  massecuite,  on  the  basis  of  the 
data  obtained  by  the  analysis  of  the  massecuite,  and  of  the 
molasses  flowing  from  the  sugar-house  centrifugals,  pro- 
vided the  sugar  is  not  washed  in  the  machines.  Further, 
it  is  necessary  to  filter  the  molasses  through  flannel,  to 
remove  fine  crystals  which  may  have  passed  the  centrif- 
ugal sieves. 

The  above  is  one  of  the  most  practical  methods  yet  pro- 
posed for  the  estimation  of  the  proportion  of  crystallized 
sugar  in  massecuites. 

97.  Notes  on  the  Estimation  of  the  Crystal- 
lized Sugar. — This  estimation  is  of  great  practical  value 
in  the  control  of  the  vacuum-pan  work  and  the  centrif- 
ugals. The  reduction  in  the  yield  of  first-sugar  in  many 
sugar-houses,  through  careless  centrifugal  work,  or  by 
sugar-crystals  passing  into  the  molasses  through  holes  in 
the  sieves,  "too  small  to  amount  to  anything,"  is  undoubt- 
edly often  quite  large.  Dupont's  method  affords  an  easy 
.control  of  this  part  of  the  manufacture,  and  should  be 
systematically  applied.  Loss  in  the  centrifugals  may  also 
be  due  to  a  very  fine  grain. 


118      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEM-STS. 


ANALYSIS   OF   SUGARS. 

98.  Analysis  of  Sugars.— The  usual  determinations 
to  be  made  in  sugars  are  the  percentages  of  sucrose  and 
ash.  The  latter  is  determined  as  in  75.  The  moisture  is 
occasionally  required.  It  is  determined  as  usual  by  dry- 
ing a  weighed  portion  of  the  sample,  in  an  oven,  to  constant 
weight.  For  high-grade  sugars  the  temperature  of  the 
oven  may  be  105°  C,  and  for  very  low  grades  100°  C,  or, 
preferably,  these  sugars  should  be  dried  in  the  vacuum- 
oven,  page  94,  at  a  temperature  below  95°  C. 

White  sugars  can  be  polarized  without  clarification  of 
the  solutions  ;  filtration  is  necessary,  however,  to  remove 
dust  and  mechanical  impurities.  Raw -sugar  solutions 
must  be  clarified  with  a  few  drops  of  dilute  subacetate  of 
lead  solution. 

Aluminic  hydrate  will  sometimes  facilitate  the  clarifica- 
tion of  low-grade  sugars. 

With  compensating  instruments  the  polarization  of  sugars 
should  be  effected  at  moderate  temperatures.  The  Schmidt 
and  Haensch  instruments  give  correct  percentages,  when 
the  normal  weight  of  the  sugar  is  contained  in  100  Mohr's 
cubic  centimetres  of  the  solution,  and  is  observed  in  a 
200-mm.  tube  at  17^°  C.  With  the  Laurent  apparatus,  the 
normal  weight  of  the  sugar  should  be  contained  in  100  true 
cubic  centimetres.  Creydt's  method,  89,  should  be  used 
with  low-grade  sugars. 

The  chemist  is  occasionally  called  upon  to  estimate  the 
refining  value  or  "  titrage  "  of  a  raw  beet-sugar.  The 
method  adopted  in  Germany  for  this  calculation  is  as  fol- 
lows :  Deduct  5  times  the  per  cent  of  ash  from  the  polari- 
zation of  the  sugar  to  obtain  the  titrage.  If  a  saccharate 
process  have  been  used,  an  additional  allowance  of  i  per 
cent  of  the    titrage,  as   calculated   above,  is  made.      This 


ANALYSIS   OF   SUGARS.  119 

method  is  not  entirely  satisfactory  to  the  refiners,  who  claim 
that  with  modern  methods  of  raw-sugar  manufacture  the 
allowance  is  too  small.  They  suggest  that  2  times  the  per 
cent  of  non-sugar  be  deducted. 

The  French  deduct  4  times  the  per  cent  of  ash  and  2 
times  the  per  cent  of  reducing  sugar  from  the  polarization. 
For  white  first  sugars,  the  deduction  is  5  times  the  percent 
of  ash.  Fractions  in  the  polarization  are  not  counted. 
The  French  Government,  in  its  calculations,  uses  only  the 
per  cent  soluble  ash  and  not  the  total  ash. 

These  methods  are  purely  arbitrary  and  are  based  solely 
upon  refining  experience. 

99.  Notes  on  the  Analysis  of  Massecuites, 
Sujjars,  and  Molasses. — In  the  event  of  obtaining  very 
dark-colored  solutions  which  are  difficult  to  polarize,  shake 
the  solution  with  about  one  gram  of  finely  powdered  dry 
bone-black,  and  filter.  To  avoid  an  error,  due  to  the  ab- 
sorption of  sugar  by  the  bone-black,  it  is  advisable  to  use 
the  latter  in  small  quantity,  or  to  filter  the  solution  through 
a  very  small  quantity  of  bone-black,  rejecting  the  first  half 
of  the  filtrate. 

In  the  clarification  of  the  solution  with  subacetate  of 
lead,  the  reagent  should  be  added  as  long  as  a  precipitate 
forms.  In  solutions  which  contain  invert-sugar  or  raffinose 
acetic  acid  should  be  added  to  restore  the  normal  rotatory 
power.  Since  the  rotatory  power  of  raffinose  is  modified 
by  subacetate  of  lead,  it  is  advisable  that  the  direct  polari- 
zation, in  the  inversion  methods,  be  made  in  a  solution 
acidulated  with  acetic  acid  as  advised  by  Pellet. 

There  is  much  room  for  improvement  in  the  existing 
methods  for  the  analysis  of  the  low  products,  especially  of 
molasses. 


120      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


ANALYSIS  OF  FILTER  PRESS-CAKE. 

100.  Determination  of  Moisture.— Dry  5  grams 
of  the  press-cake  at  100°  C.  to  constant 'weight.  The  loss 
in  weight  X  20  =  percentage  of  moisture. 

101.  Determination  of  the  Total  Sucrose.— 

The  sucrose  in  the  press-cake  is  partly  in  combination  with 
the  lime,  as  a  saccharate,  and  partly  in  water  solution.  The 
saccharate  must  be  decomposed  and  the  sucrose  set  free. 
Several  processes  for  the  decomposition  of  the  saccharate, 
in  this  analysis,  have  been  suggested,  a  few  of  which  are 
given  in  the  following  methods  : 

Stammer's  Method. — Place  100  grams  of  the  press-cake 
in  a  mortar  and  beat  to  a  smooth  cream  with  water ; 
transfer  to  a  large  tared  Erlenmeyer  flask,  and  add  suffi- 
cient water  to  make  about  200  cc,  including  that  used  in 
beating  up  the  press-cake.  Treat  with  an  excess  of  car- 
bonic acid  ;  raise  the  temperature  to  the  boiling-point,  and 
expel  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid.  Cool  the  flask  and  con- 
tents, place  it  upon  a  scale,  and  add  sufficient  water  to  com- 
plete the  quantity  to  200  grams.  Mix  the  water  and  press- 
cake  thoroughly,  filter  off  50  cc.  of  the  solution,  add  5  cc. 
subacetate  of  lead  for  clarification,  and  filter.  Polarize  the 
filtrate,  using  as  long  an  observation-tube  as  the  instrument 
will  admit,  and  increase  the  reading  by  i/io,  to  correct  for 
the  dilution. 

Example  indicating  the   Calculations. 

Weight  of  press-cake  used 100  gram.*;. 

Water  in  the  sample  as  determined  by  drying . .   40  per  cent. 
Polariscopic    reading,  400-mm.    observation-tube,  cor- 
rected for   the   i/io  dilution  (Schmidt  and   Haensch 

polariscope) 4 

Water  in  the  press-cake  =  100  X  40 40  grams. 

Water  added 200       ** 

Total  water 240        " 

The  volume  of  the  total  water  therefore  is  240  cc. 


ANALYSIS  OF  FILTER  PRESS-CAKE.  121 

Formula. 

Let  R  —  polariscopic  reading  in  a  200-mm.  tube; 

V  =  total  volume  of  water  added  and  the  water  in  the 

press-cake; 
F  ■=■  the  normal  weight  divided  by  100. 
q,,        F  y^  R  y,  V  _S  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  press- 
100  (      cake. 

Substituting  the  values  of  R,  V,  and  Fin  the  formula, 

.26048  X  2  X  240  _  {  1.25,  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the 
100  (      press-cake. 

The  saccharates  of  lime  may  be  decomposed  by  one  of 
the  methods  given  below. 

There  is  an  inappreciable  error  in  this  method  in  con- 
sidering the  volume  of  the  water  added  and  that  of  the 
water  in  the  press-cake  as  the  volume  of  the  sugar  solution 
in  Mohr's  units. 

Sidersky' s  Method. — This  is  one  of  the  most  convenient 
methods  for  the  analysis  of  well-formed  press-cake.  It  is 
based  upon  the  fact  that  the  volume  of  the  insoluble  mat- 
ter in  26.048  grams  of  press-cake  is  approximately  5  cc. 

Beat  25  grams  of  press-cake,  15.7  grams  for  the  Laurent 
polariscope,  and  a  small  quantity  of  cold  water  to  the  con- 
sistence of  a  cream,  using  a  glass  mortar  and  pestle,  and 
transfer  the  mixture  to*  a  loo-cc.  flask.  Add  a  few  drops  of 
a  solution  of  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator,  then  sufficient 
dilute  acetic  acid,  drop  by  drop,  to  discharge  the  color. 
Clarify  with  subacetate  of  lead,  filter  and  polarize.  It  is 
advisable  to  use  a  400-mm.  or  500-mm.  observation-tube 
for  the  polarization,  and  divide  the  polariscopic  reading  by 
2  or  2.5  to  obtain  the  per  cent  of  sucrose. 

Various  Methods. — Other  methods  usually  differ  from 
Sidersky's  in  the  reagent  used  for  the  decomposition  of 
the  saccharates  of  lime.  Among  these  reagents  may  be 
mentioned  boracic  acid,  carbonate  of  sodium,  bicarbonate 
of  magnesium  and  sulphate  of  magnesium.  The  object  of 
this  treatment  is  to  decompose  the  saccharates  without 
decomposing  salts  of  optically  active  bodies  which  may  be 
present  in  the  press-cake.  Herzfeld  does  not  consider 
magnesium  sulphate  suitable  for  this  purpose. 


122       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

102.  Determination  of  the  Free  and  Com- 
bined Sucrose. — Proceed  by  one  of  the  above  methods 
for  the  sucrose  in  press-cakes,  except  use  neither  acetic 
acid  nor  other  reagent  which  will  decompose  the  sac- 
charates.  Add  a  few  drops  of  acetic  acid  to  the  solution 
before  polarizing.     This  gives  the  free  sucrose. 

The  combined  sucrose,  i.e.,  the  sucrose  in  the  saccharates, 
is  obtained  by  deducting  the  free  from  the  total  sucrose. 

ANALYSIS   OF    RESIDUES   FROM    THE    ME- 
CHANICAL FILTERS. 

103.  Composition  and  Analysis.— The  composi- 
tion of  the  residues  from  the  sirup  filters  is  quite  variable, 
and,  aside  from  the  sucrose,  is  of  interest  on  account  of 
incrustation  in  the  multiple-effect  and  the  difficulty  some- 
times experienced  in  the  filtration.  The  composition 
depends  somewhat  on  the  quality  of  the  stone  and  coke 
used  in  the  lime-kiln,  and  upon  the  method  of  conducting 
the  carbonatation  and  the  saturation.  The  difficulties  in 
the  filtration  may  often  be  traced  to  the  presence  of  gelat- 
inous silica. 

The  important  constituents  of  the  residues  are  sucrose, 
oxide,  carbonate,  sulphite  and  sulpJiate  of  calcium,  iron, 
alumina  and  silica. 

The  moisture  and  sucrose  are  determined  by  the  methods 
in  sections  lOO  and  lOl.  After  the  removal  of  the 
organic  matter,  by  ignition,  the  inorganic  constituents  may 
be  determined  by  the  methods  given  for  the  analysis  of 
limestone,  page  148, 


ANALYSIS   OF   WASH   AND   WASTE   WATERS.     123 


ANALYSIS  OF  WASH  AND  WASTE  WATERS. 


104.  Determiiiatiou     of     the     Sucrose. — The 

sucrose  is  usually  the  only  determination  required  in  wash 
and  waste  waters. 

The  water  used  in  washing  the  filter  press-cake  is  ana- 
lyzed in  the  same  manner  as  carbonated  juices. 

The  waste  waters  from  the  diffusion-battery  contain 
exceedingly  small  quantities  of  sucrose.  The  determina- 
tion may  be  made  either  by  the  optical  or  the  chemical 
method.  In  the  former  add  one  or  two  drops  of  concen- 
trated subacetate  of  lead  solution  (207)  to  loo  cc.  of  the 
water,  mix  and  filter.  Polarize  in  400-mm.  or  500-mm. 
observation-tube.  Obtain  the  percentage  of  sucrose  by 
inspection,  from  the  following  table  (Schmitz): 


Tenths  of  the  Polari-  Per  Cent  Su 
scopic  Reading.  erose. 


0.1 

0.03 

0.2 

0.05 

03 

0.07 

0.4 

0.11 

0.5 

0.12 

Tenths  of  the  Polari- 
scopic  Reading. 


0.6 
0.7 
0.8 
0.9 


Per 

Cent 
crose. 

Su- 

0.15 
0.17 
0.20 
0.22 

The  chemical  method  (37)  is  applicable  to  all  waste 
waters,  especially  to  those  containing  little  more  than  traces 
of  sucrose.     Proceed  as  follows: 

Concentrate  a  measured  volume  of  the  water  to  small 
volume,  invert  with  hydrochloric  acid,  neutralize  with 
caustic  soda,  and  determine  the  reducing  sugar  by  one  of 
the  methods  in  72  or  73.  Multiply  the  percentage  of 
reducing  sugar  obtained  by  .95  to  obtain  the  percentage  of 
sucrose.  Tartaric  acid  may  be  added  to  the  water  before 
the  concentration,  thus  inverting  the  sucrose  and  dispens- 
ing with  the  hydrochloric  acid. 

In  the  examination  of  the  ammoniacal  waters  from  the 
multiple  effect,  by  the  chemical  method,  the  ammonia 
should  be  driven  off  by  boiling. 


134      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


ANALYSIS     OF     THE      EXHAUSTED     COS- 

SETTES. 

105.  Indirect  Method.— Cut  the  sample  of  well- 
drained  cossettes  into  very  small  fragments  by  means  of 
a  meat-chopper,  or,  preferably,  reduce  to  a  cream  with  a 
mill.  This  machine  should  be  one  which  will  not  press  the 
cossettes  and  whose  construction  permits  easy  access  for 
cleaning. 

Express  the  thin  juice  from  the  cossettes  with  a  powerful 
press.  It  is  essential  that  as  great  pressure  as  practicable 
be  exerted,  in  order  that  a  fairly  representative  sample  of 
the  juice  may  be  obtained.  Several  models  of  powerful 
presses  are  made  for  this  purpose,  one  of  which  is  shown 
in  Fig.  38. 

To  100  cc.  of  the  juice,  in  a  sugar-flask,  add  sufficient 
subacetate  of  lead  for  the  clarification,  dilute  to  no  cc.  and 
filter.  Polarize  the  filtrate,  using  as  long  an  observation- 
tube  as  the  instrument  employed  will  accommodate.  Cal- 
culate the  percentage  of  sucrose  by  Schmitz'  table,  page 
285.  In  order  to  calculate  the  percentage  of  sucrose  upon 
the  weight  of  the  exhausted  cossettes  and  then  to  terms  of 
the  weight  of  the  beets,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  per- 
centage of  water  in  the  cossettes  and  the  weight  of  the 
latter  per  100  pounds  of  beets.  The  water  is  determinec* 
by  the  usual  method,  of  drying  a  sample  to  constant 
weight  in  an  oven.  The  weight  of  cossettes  per  cent  beets 
is  ascertained  by  actual  experiment. 

The  well-drained  exhausted  cossettes,  when  working  by 
water-pressure,  contain  approximately  95  per  cent  of  thin 
juice;  hence  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  thin  juice 
X  95  -5-  100  =  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  cossettes. 

Direct  Method  {Stammer' s  slightly  modified). — Grind  a 
sample  of  the  well-drained  exhausted  cossettes  to  a  cream 


ANALYSIS  OP  THE   EXHAUSTED   COSSETTES.     125 

in  a  cylindro-divider,  Fig.  36,  or  other  suitable  milling 
device.  To  300  grams  of  the  cream  add  10  cc.  dilute 
solution  of  subacetate  of  lead  for  clarification,  mix  thor- 
oughly, and  filter.  Polarize  the  filtrate,  using  as  long  an 
observation-tube  as  the  polariscope  will  accommodate. 

Example  and  Calculation. — Three  hundred  grams  of  the 
creamed  cossettes,  containing  90  per  cent  of  water,  were 
treated  as  above  described.  The  polariscopic  reading, 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  instrument,  was  1.6,  corrected  for 
tube  length. 

Whence  300  X  90  =  270  grams  of  water  in  the  cream 
=  270  cc,  and  270  cc.  +  10  cc.  subacetate  of  lead  solution 
=  280  cc,  the  total  volume  of  the  solution,  exclusive  of 
the  marc  (113),  and  1.6  X  .26048  =  0.417  gram  of  sucrose 
per  100  cc.  of  the  solution;  0.417  X  280  -4-  100  =  1.168  grams, 
the  sucrose  in  300  grams  of  the  exhausted  cossettes  ;  1.168 
-^  300  X  100  =  0.39,  the  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  exhausted 
cossettes. 

The  error  due  to  calculating  the  percentage  of  water  as 
the  percentage  of  thin  juice  in  the  cossettes  is  inappreciable. 


126       HANDBOOK  FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS- 


DEFINITIONS  OF  THE  COEFFICIENTS  AND 
TERMS   USED   IN   SUGAR   ANALYSIS. 

106.  Coetficient  of  Purity,  True  and  Appa- 
rent.— The  true  coefficient  of  purity  is  the  percentage  of 
sucrose  contained  in  the  total  solid  matter  in  the  product, 
and  is  calculated  by  dividing  the  percentage  of  sucrose  by 
the  percentage  of  total  solids,  as  determined  by  drying, 
and  multiplying  the  quotient  by  lOO.  The  apparent  coefficient 
of  purity  is  calculated  as  above,  except  that  the  degree 
Brix,  as  determined  by  spindling  or  from  the  specific 
gravity,  is  substituted  for  the  percentage  of  solids,  as 
ascertained  by  drying. 

This  coefficient  is  also  often  termed  the  "  quotient  of 
purity,"  the  "  degree  of  purity,"  or  the  "exponent." 

The  calculations  may  be  much  simplified  by  the  use  of 
Kottmann's  table,  page  295.  It  will  be  noticed  that  this 
table  advances  by  .2  per  cent  sucrose.  Intermediate  values 
may  be  obtained  by  interpolation.  This  is  sufficiently  ac- 
curate for  all  calculations  based  upon  the  degree  Brix  as 
ascertained  by  spindling,  since  this  degree  itself  only  ap- 
proximates the  true  percentage  of  solids. 

107.  Glucose  Coefficient,  or  Glucose  per  lOO 
Sucrose. — This  coefficient  is  frequently  termed  the  "  glu- 
cose ratio." 

Calculation. 
Per  cent  reducing  sugars  j  the  glucose  (reducing 


Per  cent  sucrose  ""  (  sugars)  coefficient. 

This  coefficient  is  useful  in  detecting  inversion.  An 
increase  in  the  glucose  coefficient  at  different  stages  of  the 
manufacture,  provided  there  has  been  no  removal  of  sucrose 
or  decomposition  of  reducing  sugars,  shows  that  a  portion 
of  the  sucrose  has  been  inverted. 

108.  Saline  Coefficient.— The  saline  coefficient  is 
the  quantity  sucrose  per  unit  of  ash. 


DEFINITIONS   OF  THE)   COEFFICIENTS.  127 

Calculation, 

Per  cent  sucrose  ,.  ^  . 

— =; —  =  saline  coeflScient. 

Per  cent  ash 

109.  Proportional  Value. — This  coefficient  is  em- 
ployed in  comparing  the  manufacturing  value  of  different 
samples  of  beets. 

Calculation. 

Per  cent  sucrose  X  coefficient  of  purity 

~  =  proportional  value. 

loo  *^     '^ 

110.  Apparent  Dilution.— The  apparent  dilution 
is  the  amount  of  water  added  to  the  normal  juice  to  in- 
crease its  volume  to  that  of  the  diffusion-juice.  This  is 
expressed  in  percentage  terms  of  the  normal  juice. 

111.  Actual  Dilution.— The  actual  dilution  is  the 
proportion  of  water  added  to  the  normal  juice  to  reduce  its 
percentage  of  sugar  to  that  of  the  diffusion-juice;  hence  the 
actual  dilution  represents  the  evaporation  necessary,  per 
cent  normal  juice,  to  remove  the  added  water.  In  calculat- 
ing the  dilution  we  use  either  the  percentage  of  sucrose  or 
the  degree  Brix.  In  figuring  coal  consumption  all  state- 
ments should  be  based  on  the  actual  dilution.  The  nearer 
we  approach  a  perfect  extraction,  the  nearer  the  apparent 
dilution  approaches  the  actual. 

112.  Coefficient  of  Org^anic  Matter.— This  co- 
efficient is  the  quantity  of  sucrose  per  unit  of  organic 
matter  other  than  sucrose.  The  true  coefficient  and  the 
apparent  coefficient  are  calculated  as  follows,  using  the 
solids  by  drying  for  the  former  and  the  degree  Brix  as  the 
per  cent  solids  in  the  latter: 

Per  cent  sucrose _ 

Per  cent  total  solids  —  (per  cent  sucrose  -(-  per  cent  ash)  ~ 
coefficient  of  organic  matter. 

The  apparent  coefficient  of  organic  matter  is  of  doubtful 
value. 


128       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


DETERMINATION  OF  THE  MARC. 

113.  Determination  of  the  Marc— The  marc  is 
that  portion  of  the  sugar-beet  which  is  insoluble  in  water. 

Direct  and  indirect  methods  are  used  for  its  determina- 
tion. In  the  direct  methods,  the  soluble  matter  is  removed 
with  water,  under  certain  temperature  conditions.  The  in- 
direct methods  assume  that  a  juice  can  be  obtained,  by 
heavily  pressing  the  pulp,  which  has  the  mean  composition 
of  all  the  juice  in  the  beet.  The  investigations  of  distin- 
guished chemists  indicate  the  presence  of  water  that  holds 
little  if  any  sugar  in  solution,  and  which  is  termed,  by  the 
Germans,  "  Co/oi'd-wasser."  In  view  of  this  fact,  indirect 
methods  cannot  be  depended  upon  for  other  than  approxi- 
mate results,  hence  are  not  given  in  this  work. 

Method  of  von  Lippmann. — Place  20  grams  of  the  finely 
ground  sample  in  a  basket  of  wire  netting.  The  mesh 
must  be  very  fine,  and  any  portions  of  the  pulp  which  pass 
it,  in  the  subsequent  operations,  must  be  returned.  Insert 
the  basket  in  a  current  of  water  heated  to  65°  to  70°  C.  for 
30  to  35  minutes,  or  until  the  pulp  yields  no  more  soluble 
matter.  Drain  the  exhausted  pulp,  then  complete  the 
washing  with  a  mixture  of  alcohol  and  ether.  This  last 
washing  is  for  the  displacement  of  part  of  the  remaining 
water,  and  thus  facilitates  the  drying.  Dry  the  exhausted 
pulp,  at  first  slowly  at  a  temperature  of  80°  to  90°  C,  and 
then  complete  the  drying  at  100°  C.  to  constant  weight. 
Cool  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh  quickly.  Weight  of  residue 
-*-  20  X  K)o  =  per  cent  marc,  and  100  —  per  cent  marc  =  per 
cent  juice  contained  in  the  beet. 

Method  of  Pellet. — For  convenience  in  the  manipulations, 


DETEliMINATIOJ^    OF   THE   MARC. 


139 


Fig.  51. 


Pellet   uses   the   apparatus   shown   in  section  in  Fig.  51 1 

Ct  c  is  a  small  cylinder  of  finely 

perforated  metal  that  fits  snugly 

into  an  outer  vessel  or  envelope 

of  copper,  F,  V,  V,  perforated 

at  the  lower  part  ;  a  perforated 

disk,  fl,  a,  provided  with  a  stem 

or  rod,   S,  fits  snugly  into   the 

cylinder.     The  cylinder  is  large 

enough  to  hold  25  to  50  grams 

of  beet-pulp. 

Tare  the  cylinder  'and  disk 
and  place  25  to  50  grams  of 
very  finely  divided  pulp  in  it.  The  pulp  should  be  such  as 
is  suitable  for  Pellet's  diffusion  method,  62.  Place  the 
cylinder  in  the  envelope,  the  disk  on  top  of  the  pulp,  and 
the  entire  apparatus  in  a  funnel.  Wash  with  cold  water, 
i.e.,  at  the  laboratory  temperature.  With  25  grams  of 
pulp,  allowing  10  to  12  minutes  for  the  filtration,  the  ex- 
traction is  complete  with  500  cc.  of  water.  It  is  simpler  to 
direct  a  stream  of  water  upon  the  disk,  maintaining  a 
uniform  level,  and  using  about  2000  cc.  for  the  extraction. 
Return  the  first  portions  of  the  extract,  since  it  may  con- 
tain fine  particles  of  pulp.  After  the  extraction  is  com- 
pleted, press  the  exhausted  pulp,  by  means  of  the  disk, 
then  loosen  the  residue,  with  the  stem,  to  facilitate  the 
drying.  It  is  convenient  to  pass  a  few  cubic  centimetres 
of  strong  alcohol  through  the  pulp  after  pressing,  to 
economize  time  in  the  desiccation.  Dry  the  marc,  and  cal- 
culate its  percentage  as  in  the  preceding  method. 


130       HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAK-HOUSB   CHEMISTS. 


VISCOSITY   OF    SUGAR-HOUSE    PRODUCTS. 

114.  The  Viscosity  of  Sirups,  etc.— The  study  of 
the  influence  of  the  viscosity  of  the  liquors  upon  the  rate  of 
evaporation,  and  upon  the  crystallization  of  the  sugar,  is 
receiving  some  attention  in  the  European  sugar-houses. 
Since  it  is  within  the  power  of  the  manufacturer  to  slightly 
modify  the  viscosity  of  the  sirups,  etc.,  in  the  purification, 
the  importance  of  viscosity-tests  is  evident. 

Several  models  of  viscosimeters  are  made,  all  of  which 
are  designed  primarily  for  testing  oils,  but  which  may  be 
readily  applied  to  the  examination  of  sugar-house  products. 

These  instruments  may  be  divided  into  two  classes — viz., 
the  torsion-viscosimeter  and  flow-viscosimeters.  There  is 
but  one  torsion-instrument,  that  devised  by  Doolittle;  there 
are  many  models  of  flow-viscosimeters,  ranging  from  a 
simple  pipette  to  complicated  instruments  with  devices  for 
controlling  the  temperature  and  flow. 

It  is  evident  in  viscosity  comparisons  that  the  same  prod- 
ucts should  be  compared  with  one  another  at  the  same 
densities,  i.e.,  juices  should  be  reduced  to  a  common  degree 
Brix,  and  sirups  to  a  degree  common  to  all. 

So  little  of  this  work  has  been  done  with  sugar-house 
products  that  there  have  been  few  opinions  published  rela- 
tive to  a  method  of  procedure.  The  following  densities 
are  recommended  as  standards:  Juices,  io°  Brix;  sirups, 
40°  Brix;  molasses,  65°  Brix. 

Doolittle  Viscosimeter. — This  instrument  is  well  adapted 
for  sugar-work.  The  following  description  is  from  that 
published  by  Doolittle  in  the  American  Engineer  and  RaiU 
road  Journal: 

*'  Having  experimented  with  a  number  of  these  viscosim- 
eters (flow-instruments)  in  the  laboratory  of  the  Philadel- 
phia &  Reading  Railroad  Company,  we  found  them  so  very 
unsatisfactory  where  rapid  and  accurate  work  was  required 
that  we  abandoned  them  all  and  designed  an  instrument  on 
the  above-mentioned  principle  (torsion-balance).     In   the 


VISCOSITY   OF   SUGAR-HOUSE    PRODUCTS. 


131 


':^i 


torsion-viscosimeter  we  have  an  instrument  which,  during 
the  year  and  a  half  we  have  had  it  in  daily  use,  has  proved 
itself  reliable,  accurate,  and  satisfactory  in  every  way.  It 
is  very  easy  to  clean  and  manipulate,  is  adapted  to  oils  of 
all  ranges  of  viscosity,  and  reduces  personal  error  to  a 
minimum. 

"A  glance  at  the  cut  will  show  how  the  principle  has 
been  applied.  A  steel  wire  is  suspended  from  a  firm  sup- 
port and  fastened  to  a  stem 
which  passes  through  a 
graduated  horizontal  disk, 
thus  allowing  us  to  measure 
accurately  the  torsion  of  the 
wire.  The  disk  is  adjusted 
so  that  the  index-point  reads 
exactly  o,  thus  showing  that 
that  there  is  no  torsion  in 
the  wire.  A  cylinder  2  in. 
long  by  i^  in.  in  diameter, 
having  a  slender  stem  by 
which  to  suspend  it,  is  then 
immersed  in  the  oil  and  fast- 
ened by  a  thumb-screw  to 
the  lower  part  of  the  stem  of 
the  disk.  The  oil-cup  is  sur- 
rounded by  a  bath  of  water 
or  high  fire-test  oil,  accord- 
ing to  the  temperature  at 
which  it  is  desired  to  take 
the  viscosity.  This  tempera- 
ture being  obtained,  while 
the  disk  is  resting  on  its 
supports,  the  wire  is  twisted 
360°  by  rotating  the  milled 
head  at  the  top.  The  disk 
being  released,  the  cylinder 
rotates  in  the  oil  by  virtue 
of  the  torsion  of  the  wire.  Fig.  52. 

"The  action  now  observed  is  identical  with  that  of  the 
simple  pendulum. 


132      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

"If  there  were  no  resistance  to  be  overcome,  the  disk 
would  revolve  back  to  o,  and  the  momentum  thus  acquired 
would  carry  it  360"  in  the  opposite  direction.  What  we 
find  is,  that  the  resistance  of  the  oil  to  the  rotation  of  the 
cylinder  causes  the  revolution  to  fall  short  of  360°,  and  that 
the  greater  the  viscosity  of  the  oil  the  greater  will  be  the 
resistance,  and  hence  the  retardation.  We  find  this  retarda- 
tion to  be  a  very  delicate  measure  of  the  viscosity  of  the  oil; 

"  There  are  a  number  of  ways  in  which  this  retardation 
may  be  read,  but  the  simplest  we  have  found  to  be  directly 
in  the  number  of  degrees  retardation  between  the  first  and 
second  complete  arcs  covered  by  our  rotating  pendulum. 
For  example,  suppose  we  twist  the  wire  360"  and  release 
the  disk  so  that  rotation  begins.  In  order  to  obtain  an  ab- 
solute reading  to  start  from,  which  shall  be  independent  of 
any  slight  error  in  adjustment,  we  ignore  the  fact  that  we 
have  started  from  360°,  and  take  as  our  first  reading  the 
end  of  the  first  swing.  Ignore  the  next  reading,  which  is 
on  the  other  side  of  the  o  point,  as  it  belongs  in  common 
to  both  arcs.  Take  the  third  reading,  which  will  be  at  the 
end  of  the  second  complete  arc,  and  on  the  same  side  of  the 
o  point  as  the  first  reading.  The  difference  between  these 
two  readings  will  be  the  number  of  degrees  retardation 
caused  by  the  viscosity  of  the  oil.  Suppose  the  readings 
are  as  follows: 

First  reading,  right  hand  355.6° 

Second  reading,  left  hand — ignore 

Third  reading,  right  hand  338.2° 


17.4°  retardation. 

"  In  order  to  secure  freedom  from  error,  we  make  two 
tests:  one  by  rotating  the  milled  head  to  the  right  and  the 
other  to  the  left.  If  the  instrument  is  in  exact  adjustment 
these  two  results  will  be  the  same;  but  if  it  is  slightly  out 
the  mean  of  the  two  readings  will  be  the  correct  reading." 

Flow-vis cosimeter. — Of  the  many  efficient  forms  of  fiow- 
viscosimeters  a  brief  description  of  Engler's,  which  is  pre- 
ferred by  Dupont,'  will  suffice. 

*  Bulletin  de  V Association  des  Chimistes,  14,  948. 


VISCOSITY   OF  SUGAB-HOUSE   PRODUCTS.         133 

Engler's  apparatus  is  shown  in  Fig.  53.    The  inner  or  oil 
chamber  has  an  accurate  arrangement  for  measuring  the 


Fig.  53. 

liquid.  This  chamber  is  surrounded  by  a  water-bath.  A 
plug  at  the  centre  closes  the  exit-tube. 

The  apparatus  is  so  arranged  that  the  flow  will  be  under 
the  same  conditions  in  comparative  tests. 

In  making  a  test,  the  inner  chamber  is  filled  to  the  mark 
with  water  at  20°  C,  this  temperature  being  maintained  by 
means  of  the  water-bath.  The  plug  is  lifted  and  the  time 
noted,  in  seconds,  required  for  200  cc.  of  the  water  to  flow 
into  the  graduated  flask.  A  stop-watch  should  be  used  in 
timing  the  flow. 

The  inner  chamber  and  the  tube  are  thoroughly  dried, 
and  the  chamber  is  filled  with  the  liquid  to  be  tested. 
The  temperature  of  the  water  in  the  bath  is  again  main- 
tained at  20°  C.  for  some  time,  to  insure  a  corresponding 
temperature  of  the  liquid  in  the  inner  chamber.  The  plug 
is  lifted  as  before,  and  the  time  in  seconds  required  for  the 
flow   of  200  cc.  of  the  liquid  is  again  noted.     This  time, 


134      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


divided  by  that  required  for  the  flow  of  the  water  is  the 
specific  viscosity  of  the  liquid.  It  is  usual,  in  testing  oils, 
to  state  the  viscosity  as  the  number  of  seconds  required  for 
a  given  volume  of  the  oil  to  flow  through  an  orifice  which 
will  pass  the  same  volume  of  a  standard  oil  at  the  same 
temperature  in  a  given  time. 

It  would  be  more  convenient  to  state  the  viscosity  of  a 
sugar  solution  in  this  wayand  operate  at  a  higher  temper- 
ature than  20°  C.         jgiS^r^^iis' :u>  vv  , 


orij 


CONTROL  OF  THE  OSMOSIS  PROCESS.  135 


CONTROL  OF  THE  OSMOSIS  PROCESS  FOR 
THE  TREATMENT  OF  MOLASSES. 

115.  Analytical  Work.— The  object  of  the  osmosis 
process  (dialysis)  is  the  reduction  of  the  proportion  of  the 
saline  and  organic  impurities,  so  that  an  additional  quantity 
of  sugar  can  be  removed  from  the  molasses  by  crystalliza- 
tion. The  proportion  of  saline  matter  in  the  molasses  and 
in  the  by-products  from  the  osmosis  is  so  high  that  the 
apparent  coefficients  of  purity  are  of  but  comparatively 
little  value,  and  the  time  required  for  the  determination 
of  the  true  coefficients  is  so  long  that  they  cannot  be  made 
available  for  the  immediate  control.  Notwithstanding  the 
objections  mentioned,  manufacturers  are  compelled  to  be 
guided  largely  by  the  apparent  purities  in  conducting  the 
osmosis.  The  saline  coefficient  is  a  more  reliable  guide, 
but,  unfortunately,  its  determination  also  requires  much 
time.  In  actual  practice,  the  following,  determinations  are 
usually  made  in  the  molasses,  before  and  after  osmosis, 
and  in  the  osmosis  water:  Degree  Brix,  percentage  of 
total  solids  by  drying,  percentage  of  sucrose,  percentage 
of  ash,  the  percentage  of  organic  matter  not  sucrose  by 
difference,  the  percentage  of  reducing-sugars,  and  the 
alkalinity  due  to  lime. 

The  following  coefficients,  true  and  apparent,  should  be 
calculated  :  Coefficient  of  purity,  saline  coefficient,  glucose 
coefficient,  and  coefficient  of  organic  matter. 

Practice  and  the  expense  of  the  application  of  the  process, 
as  compared  with  the  value  of  the  sugar  recovered,  must  be 
the  guides  in  determining  the  improvement  to  be  made  in 
the  above  coefficients. 

Gallois  and  Dupont  give  the  following  advice,  in  their 
manual,*   relative  to   the  character  of  molasses  that    may 

^  Manuei- Agenda,  1891,  p.  383. 


136      HANDBOOK  FOB  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

be  treated  by  this  process  with  profit :  "  It  is  useless  to 
dialyze  molasses  whose  saline  coefficient  is  higher  than  6°, 
since  it  will  yield  a  satisfactory  quantity  of  sugar  on  fur- 
ther concentration.  Molasses  containing  more  than  i  per 
cent  of  reducing-sugars  cannot  be  treated  with  profit.  Mo- 
lasses containing  much  lime,  especially  organic  salts  of 
lime,  are  difficult  to  dialyze.  Such  molasses  should  receive 
a  preliminary  addition  of  carbonate  of  soda  or  acid  phos- 
phate of  barium  to  precipitate  the  lime,  which  must  be  re- 
moved. Molasses  containing  as  much  as  0.2  per  cent  of 
lime  (CaO)  should  be  treated  as  indicated.  If  there  are  in- 
dications of  fermentation,  or  if  the  molasses  is  but  slightly 
alkaline,  neutral,  or  acid,  caustic  soda  should  be  added." 


ANALYSIS  OF  SACCHAKATES.  137 


ANALYSIS  OF  SACCHARATES. 

116.  Saccharates. — The  various  chemical  processes 
for  the  extraction  of  the  sugar  from  the  molasses,  usually 
depend  upon  its  precipitation  as  a  saccharate  of  lime  or 
strontium.  The  precipitation  of  lead  and  barium  sac- 
charates has  been  proposed,  and  used  to  a  limited  extent. 
These  saccharates  possess  the  requisite  properties,  but  for 
commercial  reasons  lime  and  strontium  are  the  precipitants 
almost  exclusively  employed. 

The  following  are  the  chemical  formulae  of  the  lime  sac- 
charates, of  which  the  tribasic  is  the  most  important: 

Monobasic  saccharate,    (C12H22O11).    CaO 
Dibasic  saccharate,  (CisHaaOn)-  2CaO 

Tribasic  saccharate,        (CnHaaOn).  sCaO 

Strontium  forms  two  saccharates,  the  monobasic  and  the 
dibasic;  barium  forms  a  monobasic  saccharate.  The  for- 
mulae of  these  saccharates  are  similar  to  those  of  the  corre- 
sponding lime  compounds. 

117.  Deterniiiiatloii  of  the  Sucrose,  Lime, 
Strontium,  and  Barium. — Mix  a  large  quantity  of 
the  saccharate  thoroughly  to  obtain  a  uniform  sample, 
transfer  a  portion  to  a  mortar  and  rub  to  a  smooth  paste. 
Titrate  ten  grams  of  this  paste  with  normal  hydrochloric 
acid  solution  (176),  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator. 
It  is  advisable  to  reduce  the  paste,  before  titration,  with  a 
few  cc.  of  water.  Calculation:  i  cc.  normal  hydrochloric 
acid  will  saturate  .028  gram  calcium  oxide  (CaO),  0.07671 
gram  harium  oxide  (BaO),  or  .0518  gram  strontium  oxide 
(SrO).  Multiply  the  burette  reading  by  the  factor  for  cal- 
cium oxide,  barium  oxide,  or  strontium  oxide,  as  given 
above,  and  this  product  by  10,  to  obtain  the  percentage  of 
calcium  oxide,  etc.,  in  the  saccharate. 

,     To  determine  the  sucrose  :  To  the  normal  weight  of  the 


138       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

saccharate  add  acetic  acid  to  slight  acidity,  using  phe» 
nolphthalein  as  an  indicator.  Transfer  the  solution  to  a 
sugar-flask,  add  a  few  drops  of  subacetate  of  lead  solution, 
dilute  to  loocc,  mix  the  contents  of  the  flask  and  filter. 
Polarize  the  filtrate  in  a  20o-mm.  tube.  The  polariscopic 
reading  is  the  percentage  of  sucrose  in  the  saccharate. 

118.  Apparent  and  True  Coefficients  of  Pu- 
rity.— Beat  an  indefinite  quantity  of  the  saccharate,  to  a 
cream,  in  a  mortar  with  distilled  water,  add  sufficient  oxalic 
acid  to  combine  with  the  greater  part  of  the  lime,  being 
cautious  not  to  add  sufficient  to  decompose  all  of  the  sac- 
charate. Transfer  the  mixture  to  a  strong  flask,  add  a  few 
drops  of  phenolphthalein  solution,  and  saturate  with  car- 
bonic-acid gas  from  a  suitable  generator.  The  discharge 
of  the  color  indicates  the  termination  of  the  process.  It  is 
advisable  to  saturate  under  moderate  pressure.  Close  the 
flask  with  a  2-hole  stopper;  pass  the  gas-delivery  tube 
through  one  hole,  nearly  to  the  bottom  of  the  flask,  and  in 
the  other  hole  insert  a  short  piece  of  tubing  closed  with  a 
rubber  tube  and  a  pinch-cock.  The  cock  should  be  opened 
from  time  to  time  at  the  beginning  of  the  operation  for  the 
escape  of  air.  If  the  gas  from  the  lime-kiln  be  used  for 
this  saturation,  the  apparatus  should  be  placed  in  a  fume- 
chamber,  and  a  regulator,  on  the  principle  of  that  shown  in 
Fig.  49,  should  be  connected  with  the  short  tube. 

'  On  the  completion  of  the  saturation,  boil  the  mixture  to 
expel  the  excess  of  carbonic  acid,  and  filter  off  the  solution. 
Cool  the  filtrate  and  determine  its  density  (Brix)  and  per 
cent  sucrose  as  in  juices,  and  calculate  the  apparent  and 
true  coefficients  of  purity. 

119.  Analysis  of  **  Mother-liquors "  and 
Wash-waters. — The  analysis  of  these  products  is  made 
as  described  for  saccharates  (1 17),  except  that  in  the  su- 
crose determination,  only  sufficient  acetic  acid  should  be 
added  to  neutralize  the  alkalinity,  phenolphthalein  being 
used  as  an  indicator. 


EXAMINATION  OF   BONE-BLACK.  139 


EXAMINATION   OF   BONE-BLACK. 

120.  Limited  Use  of  Bone-black  in  Sngar 
Factories. — The  use  of  bone-black,  or  char,  as  it  is  often 
termed,  in  sugar  factories,  is  now  very  limited,  it  having 
been  almost  entirely  replaced  by  sulphurous  acid.  In  view 
of  tkis  fact,  only  a  few  essential  tests  are  given. 

121.  Revivification. — The  practical  test  to  deter- 
mine whether  the  revivification  has  been  properly  con- 
dusted  is  qualitative,  and  employs  a  caustic-soda  solution, 
as  follows  : 

Uml  about  50  grams  of  bone-black  two  or  three  minutes 
in  50  cc.  of  a  solution  of  caustic  soda  (9°  Brix  or  5°  Baum6). 
Decant  or  filter  the  solution  into  a  test-tube,  using  an  as- 
bestos filter,  and  note  its  color.  A  faint  tinge  of  color  in- 
dicates a  good  revivification;  a  yellow  or  brown  color 
indicates  insufficient  revivification;  a  colorless  or  greenish 
solution  indicates  over-revivification.  This  test  is  of  great 
importance,  and  should  be  made  frequently.  A  reddish- 
tisged  char  indicates  imperfect  revivification;  gray,  leakage 
®f  air  into  the  retorts;  and  white,  an  overburned  bone-black. 

122.  Weight  of  a  Cubic  Foot  of  Bone-black. 
—  Bone-black  increases  in  weight  each  time  it  is  used,  by 
the  absorption  of  impurities  which  are  not  removed  in  the 
revivification.  This  gradual  increase  in  weight  is  a  meas- 
ure of  the  deterioration  from  usage. 

The  weight  per  cubic  foot  depends  in  a  large  measure 
upon  the  size  of  the  grains,  and  in  new  char  will  range 
from  about  43  to  48  lbs.  On  commencing  work  with  new 
char  its  weight  per  cubic  foot  should  be  recorded,  and  this 
weight  employed  in  future  comparisons.  According  to 
Gallois  and  Dupont,^  the  weight  of  bone-black  of  good 
quality,  while  in  use,  should  not  exceed  1.23  times  its 
weight  when  new;  at  1.47  it  is  in  a  very  bad  condition;  and 
at  1.50  times  the  original  weight  it  should  be  rejected. 

*  Manuel- Agenda  des  Fabricants  de  Sucre,  1891,  p.  307,  Ch.  Gallois  and 
F.  Dupont. 


140      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

!  128.  Sulphide  of  Calcium.— A  greenish  color  on 
treatment  with  caustic  soda,  as  in  121,  is  an  indication  of 
the  presence  of  sulphide  of  calcium.  Occasional  tests 
should  be  made  for  this  substance,  since  its  presence  very 
materially  affects  the  quality  of  the  bone-black,  and  when 
it  is  present  in  more  than  very  small  quantities,  the  char 
snould  be  rejected.  This  salt  may  be  tested  for  qualita- 
tively by  treating  the  char  with  strong  acid  and  testing  the 
gas  liberated  for  sulphuretted  hydrogen. 

124.  Moisture. — The  moisture  should  be  determined 
in  new  bone-black,  since  this  substance  is  very  hygroscopic. 
An  increase  over  6  per  cent  moisture  is  an  excess  chargeable 
to  the  dealer,  and  for  which  the  sugar  manufacturer  should 
not  pay.  Bone-black  may  absorb  20  per  cent  of  moisture 
without  showing  external  indications  of  this  increase. 

125.  Decolorizing  Power  of  the  Bone-black. 
— The  decolorizing  power  of  bone-black  is  determined  by 
means  of  a  colorimeter.  Stammer's  instrument  for  this 
purpose  is  a  very  convenient  form,  and  the  results  obtained 
by  different  operators  are  comparable.  This  instrument 
consists  essentially  of  an  arrangement  for  comparing  the 
depth  of  color  of  a  column  of  sugar  solution  with  standard- 
colored  glass  plates.  An  ocular  is  so  arranged  that  the 
color  of  the  solution  under  examination  appears  upon 
one  half  of  a  disk,  and  that  of  the  standard  glass  on  the 
other.  The  eyepiece  and  a  tube  containing  the  glasses 
are  raised  and  lowered  by  means  of  »a  rack  and  pinion,  the 
length  of  the  column  of  solution  being  varied  at  the  same 
time;  this  length  is  shown  on  a  scale  by  means  of  a  pointer, 
carried  by  a  slide.  The  theory  of  this  instrument  depends 
upon  the  variations  in  the  intensity  of  the  color  of  the  so- 
lution, which  is  proportionate  to  the  length  of  the  column. 
In  using  the  colorimeter,  the  object  is  to  equalize  the  in- 
tensities of  the  colors  as  seen  on  the  disk  through  the 
ocular,  by  lengthening  or  shortening  the  column  of  the  solu- 
tion under  examination.  The  strength  of  solution  being 
known,  a  comparative  statement  of  depth  of  color  in  terms 
of  the  sucrose  present  may  be  made,  or  the  reading  on  the 
scale  may  easily  be  reduced  to  an  expression  showing  the 
depth  of  color  as  compared  with  the  standard. 


EXAMINATION   OF   BONE-BLACK.  141 

This  instrument  may  be  used  in  determining  the  decolor- 
izing power  of  a  char  in  the  following  manner: 

A  standard-color  solution  should  be  prepared,  using  car- 
amel, a  definite  quantity  being  taken.  Duboscq  recom- 
mends 2  grams  per  litre  for  his  instrument.  Prepare  the 
caramel  by  heating  pure  cane-sugar  to  about  215°  C,  until 
all  the  sugar  is  decomposed.  In  examining  bone-black, 
determine  the  depth  of  color  in  the  standard  solution,  then 
heat  a  measured  volume  of  this  solution  with  a  weighed 
portion  of  the  char  a  certain  length  of  time,  for  example, 
half  an  hour,  filter,  and  again  determine  the  intensity  of 
color.  The  difference  in  the  depth  of  color  referred  to  the 
standard  represents  the  efficiency  of  the  bone-black  in  de- 
colorizing. In  sugar-house  work,  a  standard  bone  black  of 
a  known  decolorizing  capacity  is  convenient  for  compari- 
son. Comparable  results  can  only  be  obtained  by  adopting 
certain  conditions  and  adhering  to  them  in  all  experiments. 

The  decolorizing  power  may  be  roughly  determined,  in 
the  absence  of  a  colorimeter,  as  follows:  Treat  a  measured 
volume  of  a  standard-color  solution  as  described  above. 
Fill  a  cylinder,  similar  to  those  used  in  Nesslerizing,  to  a 
certain  depth  with  the  decolorized  and  filtered  solution; 
place  the  same  volume  of  the  standard  solution  in  a  similar 
cylinder,  and  add  water  to  the  latter  from  a  burette  until 
a  portion  of  the  same  depth  as  that  of  the  decolorized  solu- 
tion shows  the  same  intensity  of  color  when  examined  over 
a  white  background.  The  volume  of  water  added  is  in- 
versely proportional  to  the  decolorizing  power  of  the  char. 

126.  Determination  of  the  Principal  Con- 
stituents.—  The  constituents  which  it  is  sometimes 
necessary  to  determine  in  the  examination  of  bone-black 
are  the  following:  moisture,  carbon,  carbonate,  sulphate, 
sulphide,  and  phosphates  of  calcium,  sand  and  other  foreign 
substances. 

The  moisture  is  determined  by  drying  2  grams  of  the 
powdered  bone-black  at  140°  to  150°  C. 

The  other  constituents  are  determined  by  the  usual 
methods  of  quantitative  analysis  as  given  in  the  various 
text-books. 


142       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


ANALYSIS  OF  THE  LIME-KILN  AND  CHIM- 
NEY GASES. 

127.  Analysis  of  the  Gas  from  the  Linie-kilii. 

— Carbonic  acid  (COa)  is  the  valuable  constituent  of  the  gas. 
The  other  gases  which  are  present  and  should  be  quantita- 
tively determined  in  the  control  of  the  lime-kiln  are  car- 
bonic oxide  (CO)  and  oxygen  (O).  Hydrosulphuric  acid 
(H2S)  and  sulphurous  acid  (SOa)  are  sometimes  present  in 
traces.  The  following  analyses'  illustrate  the, usual  com- 
position of  the  gas,  as  reported  by  six  sugar-houses,  and 
will  be  a  guide  in  the  analysis  : 


A 

B 

C          D 

E         F 

Carbonic  acid,  pr.  ct., 

31-2 

30 

27       25  to  30 

29-5     33 

Carbonic  oxide,     " 

1.6 

0.5         3 

0.5 

Oxygen, 

1-3 

I             2.5 

1.5 

Nitrogen,  by    differ- 

ence, pr.  ct., 

65.9 

71-5 

69.75 

Sulphurous  acid,  pr.  ct,,  0.75 

A  modification  of  Orsat's  apparatus,  Fig.  54,  is  convenient 
for  use  in  this  analysis.  It  consists  essentially  of  a  burette 
for  measuring  the  gases  and  a  series  of  pipettes  or  U-tubes 
for  their  absorption.  The  burette  A  has  a  capacity  of 
100  cc, ;  the  lower  part  is  divided  into  cubic  centimetres  and 
tenths  ;  it  is  enclosed  in  a  cylinder,  which  is  filled  with 
water,  in  order  to  avoid  variations  in  the  temperature  of 
the  gas  during  measurement.  The  U-tubes  B,  C,  and  Z>  are 
filled  with  the  reagents  for  absorbing  the  gases.  The  sur- 
faces exposed  to  the  gases  are  increased  by  filling  the 
U-tubes  with  small  glass  tubes. 

The  connecting  tubes  are  of  very  small  internal  diame- 
ter and  are  made  of  heavy  glass.     Prepare  the  solutions  for 

1  Bu^.  Assoc,  des  Chimistes  de  France, 


ANALYSTS   OF  THE   LIME-KILK   GASES. 


143 


absorbing  the  gases  as  follows  and  fill  each  U-tube  about 
half  full: 

For  tube  B  :  Use  a  concentrated  solution  of  caustic  potas- 
sium (KHO)  of  about  60°  Brix. 

For  tube  C :  Dissolve  25  parts  of  pyrogallic  acid  in  50  parts 
of  hot  water  and  add  100  parts  of  caustic  potassium  solution 


Fig.  54. 

of  approximately  50°  Brix.  The  volume  of  the  U-tube 
should  be  ascertained,  and  only  sufficient  of  this  solution 
should  be  prepared  to  half  fill  the  tube. 

For  tube  D  :  Cuprous  chloride  for  filling  this  tube  may 
be  quickly  prepared  by  the  following  method  :  Dissolve 
35  grams  of  cupric  chloride  in  a  small  quantity  of  water  and 
add  stannous  chloride  in  excess  as  indicated  by  the  change 
in  the  color  of  the  solution.  Cuprous  chloride,  insoluble  in 
water,  separates  as  a  white  crystalline  precipitate.  Wash 
ihe  cuprous  chloride  several  times,  by  decantation,  with 
jlistilled  water.  Avoid  exposing  the  precipitate  to  the  action 
of  the  air  more  *han  is  strictly  necessary.  In  the  last 
washing,  pour  off  the  water  close  to  the  precipitate,  then  dis- 


144      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

solve  the  latter  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  and  wash 
it  into  a  bottle  with  this  acid,  using  in  all  200  cc.  :  dilute 
the  solution  with  approximately  120  cc.  of  water.  Place  a 
few  pieces  of  copper  wire  or  turnings  in  the  bottle,  stopper 
it,  and  set  it  aside  until  required  for  filling  the  tube. 

The  following  method  may  be  used  instead  of  the  above  : 
Place  35  grams  of  cupric  chloride  in  a  glass-stoppered 
bottle,  add  200  cc.  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  and  a 
quantity  of  copper  turnings  or  fragments  of  copper-foil. 
Stopper  the  flask  and  set  aside  for  two  days,  shaking  oc- 
casionally ;  add  120  cc.  water  (Wagner).  The  excess  of 
this  solution  over  the  quantity  required  for  filling  the  tube 
should  be  preserved  as  described  above. 

Fill  the  bottle  F  with  distilled  water  and  set  it  on  the 
table.  Close  the  cocks  on  the  tubes  B,  C,  and  D,  and  turn 
the  3-way  cock  G  so  that  it  connects  the  burette  with  the 
outer  air.  Lift  the  bottle  F  until  the  water  fills  the  burette, 
then  close  the  pinch-cock. 

A  U-tube,  partly  filled  with  water,  and  having  each 
branch  loosely  plugged  with  cotton,  is  connected  with  the 
tube  By  and  has  a  tube  for  connection  with  the  pipe  leading 
from  the  carbonic-acid  pump. 

Having  filled  the  burette,  close  D  and  place  the  bottle  F 
on  the  table  ;  open  the  cock  on  the  U-tube  B,  then  cautiously 
open  the  pinch-cock,  and  as  the  water  flows  out  of  the  bu- 
rette the  caustic  potash  solution  will  rise  in  B  ;  close  the 
pinch-cock  when  the  potash  solution  reaches  the  mark  on 
the  tube  just  below  the  stop-cock.  Fill  the  burette  again 
and  repeat  these  manipulations  with  Cand  Z>  successively. 
Care  must  be  exercised  not  to  let  the  liquids  rise  to  the 
stop-cocks.  Pour  a  little  kerosene  oil  on  the  surface  of  the 
solutions  in  those  limbs  of  the  U-tubes  at  the  back  of  the 
apparatus,  to  protect  thern  from  the  action  of  the  air. 

A  small  pipe  should  be  led  from  the  gas-main  to  a  con- 
venient place  in  the  laboratory,  where  the  apparatus  can 
be  permanently  arranged  for  these  analyses.  The  pipe 
should  terminate  in  a  pet-cock  for  drawing  the  samples  of 
gas. 

Connect  the  open  branch  of  the  U-tube  at  the  inlet  E 
with  the   pet-cock.     The  apparatus   is  now  ready  for  test- 


ANALYSIS   OF   THE   LIME-KILN   GASES.  145 

ing.  If  there  be  no  leaks,  the  cock  G  being  open  to  the 
gas-inlet,  the  pet-cock  closed,  and  the  pinch-cock  open,  the 
water-column  in  the  burette  should  sink  a  little,  then  remain 
stationary.  Having  satisfactorily  tested  the  connections, 
proceed  to  the  analysis  as  follows  :  Fill  the  burette  to  the 
loo-cc.  mark  with  water,  close  the  pinch-cock,  and  place  the 
bottle  ^on  the  table  ;  turn  the  3-way  cock  G  so  that  it  con- 
nects with  the  open  air  and  with  the  capillary  tube  leading 
to  the  burette,  then  open  the  pet-cock  carefully  and  let  the 
gas  bubble  through  the  U-tube  connected  with  JS"  and  ex- 
pel the  air  from  the  tubes,  including  that  leading  from  the 
gas-main.  Disconnect  the  apparatus  from  the  open  air,  and 
let  the  gas  flow  slowly  into  the  burette,  by  opening  the 
pinch-cock.  Hold  the  bottle  F  so  that  the  level  of  the  water 
in  it  is  the  same  as  that  in  the  burette;  when  the  latter 
reaches  the  lowest  graduation,  which  should  be  zero,  close 
the  3  way  cock.  Relieve  any  pressure  there  may  be  in  the 
apparatus  by  manipulating  the  3-way  cock  C,  opening  it  to 
the  air.  To  determine  the  carbonic  acid  (CO2)  in  the  gases, 
open  the  cock  on  the  U-tube  B,  containing  caustic  potash 
solution,  and  by  raising  the  bottle  F  force  the  gases  into  the 
tube,  and  close  the  pinch-cock  ;  lower  the  bottle  to  the  table, 
and,  by  gradually  opening  the  pinch-cock,  let  the  potash  so- 
lution rise  to  the  mark.  Repeat  this  manipulation  two  or 
three  times,  holding  the  bottle  F  close  to  the  burette,  each 
time,  with  the  water  in  the  two  at  the  same  level.  As  soon 
as  there  is  no  further  decrease  in  the  volume  of  the  gas, 
close  the  cock  on  B  and  read  the  burette,  being  careful  to 
hold  the  bottle  so  that  the  water-level  is  the  same  in  both  it 
and  the  burette.  The  rise  of  the  water  in  the  burette  corre- 
sponds to  the  percentage  by  volume  of  carbonic  acid  (CO2) 
in  the  gas.  Repeat  these  manipulations,  using  the  U-tube 
C  containing  the  pyrogallate  of  potassium.  The  burette 
reading  is  the  sum  of  the  percentages  of  carbonic  acid  and 
oxygen.  Again  repeat,  using  the  U-tube  D  containing  the 
cuprous  chloride.  This  burette  reading  is  the  sum  of  the 
percentages  of  carbonic  acid,  oxygen,  and  carbonic  oxide 
(CO).  The  separate  percentages  are  obtained  by  subtrac- 
tion. The  residual  gas,  consisting  almost  entirely  of  nitro- 
gen, is  expelled  by  lifting  the  water-bottle  after  opening 


146       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

the  cock  G.  The  burette  should  be  left  filled  with  water 
to  the  loo-cc.  mark,  and  it  is  then  always  ready  for  a  new 
ianalysis.  The  cocks  should  be  well  greased  with  a  mix- 
ture of  vaseline  and  mutton  tallow. 

The  pipe  leading  from  the  main  should  always  be  well 
rinsed  with  the  gases  before  each  test. 

The  solutions  in  the  U-tubes  should  be  changed  as  soon 
as  the  absorption  becomes  sluggish,  which  will  be  after 
150  determinations  or  more.  The  order  indicated  of  ab- 
sorbing the  gases  should  be  followed. 

The  lime-kiln  gases  may  also  contain  small  quantities  of 
hydrosulphuric  acid  (H2S)  and  sulphurous  acid  (SO2), 
from  sulphur  in  the  coke.  The  former  gas  is  tested  for 
with  filter-paper  dipped  in  subacetate  of  lead  solution,  or 
by  passing  the  gases  into  the  lead  solution.  A  black 
precipitate  of  sulphide  of  lead  is  formed  in  the  presence  of 
this  gas. 

Sulphurous  acid  is  tested  for  by  shaking  a  little  of  the 
gas,  in  a  test-tube,  with  iodized  starch  solution.  In  the 
presence  of  sulphurous  acid  the  blue  color  is  discharged. 

128.  Simple  Apparatus  for  the  Deteriniiui- 
tioii  of  Carbonic  Acid  in  Lime-kiln  Gases 
(Stammer). — This  apparatus  consists  of  a  50  cc.  gas- 
burette,  in  i/io  cc,  with  glass  stop-cock,  the  measurement 
from  the  stop-cock;  also  a  large  glass  cylinder  of  suflScient 
depth  to  immerse  the  greater  part  of  the  burette.  Fill  the 
cylinder  and  the  burette  with  water;  connect  the  delivery- 
tube  of  the  burette  with  the  gas-main,  as  with  Orsat's  ap- 
paratus, holding  the  burette  vertically  with  the  mouth 
under  the  water  in  the  cylinder.  Fill  the  burette  with  the  gas 
and  close  the  stop-cock.  Immerse  the  burette  in  the  water  to 
the  lowest  graduation,  then  open  the  cock  for  the  escape  of 
gas  until  the  water  stands  at  the  same  level  inside  and  outside 
the  tube.  Pass  a  small  piece  of  caustic  sodium  or  potassium 
under  the  surface  of  the  water  and  into  the  burette,  placing 
the  thumb  over  the  mouth  of  the  latter.  Remove  the  burette 
from  the  water  and  shake  it,  to  bring  the  caustic  soda 
in  contact  with  the  gas.  Place  the  mouth  of  the  tube  under 
the  water,  move  the  thumb  a  little  to  one  side  to  permit 
the  rise  of  the  water  to  take  the  place  of  the  carbonic  acid 


ANALYSIS   OF  THE   CHIMNEY   GASES.  147 

absorbed.  Repeat  these  manipulations  until  there  is  no 
further  rise  of  water  in  the  burette.  Lower  the  burette  in 
the  cylinder  until  the  level  of  the  water  is  the  same  in  both, 
then  note  the  rise  in  the  water.  Multiply  this  number  by  2 
to  obtain  the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid.  The  results  by 
this  method  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  purposes. 

129.  Analysis  of  the  Cliiiuuey  Gases.— The 
analysis  of  the  chimney  gases  is  conducted  in  the  same 
manner  as  that  of  the  gas  from  the  lime-kiln  (127),  except 
that  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  pump  or  a  double-acting  rubber 
bulb  in  drawing  the  samples. 

It  is  usually  only  necessary  to  determine  the  carbonic 
acid  (CO2),  carbonic  oxide  (CO),  and  the  oxygen  (O).  With 
a  good  boiler-setting  and  satisfactory  firing,  the  proportion 
of  carbonic  acid  should  be  large,  and  that  of  the  carbonic 
oxide  very  small. 


148       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS, 


ANALYSIS  OF  LIMESTONE. 

130.  Preparatiou  of  the  Sample.— Fragments 
should  be  chipped  from  a  large  number  of  pieces  of  the 
stone,  and  reduced  to  a  uniform  size,  then  mixed  and  sub- 
sampled  by  "quartering."  The  small  sample  should  be 
reduced  to  a  very  fine  powder  in  an  iron  mortar  or  on  a 
grinding-plate.  Particles  of  metallic  iron,  from  the  mortar 
or  plate,  should  be  removed  by  stirring  the  powder  with  a 
magnet.  Sift  the  powder  through  an  8o-mesh  sieve,  and 
mix  thoroughly  by  sifting  or  otherwise. 

131.  Deteriniuation  of  Moisture.— Dry  2  grams 
of  the  powdered  stone  to  constant  weight  in  a  tared  fiat  dish 
or  a  watch-glass.  The  oven  should  be  heated  to  210°  C. 
The  loss  of  weight  divided  by  2  and  multiplied  by  100  is 
the  percentage  of  moisture. 

132.  Determiuatiou  of  Sand,  Clay,  and  Or- 
ganic Matter. — Treat  i  gram  of  the  powdered  lime- 
stone, in  a  beaker,  with  a  few  cubic  centimetres  of  hydro- 
chloric acid,  being  cautious,  in  adding  the  acid,  to_  prevent 
the  projection  of  particles  of  the  material  from  the  glass. 
Cover  the  beaker  with  a  watch-glass  and  heat  the  liquid 
a  few  minutes.  Collect  the  residue  on  a  tared  quanti- 
tative filter,  wash  it  thoroughly  with  hot  water,  and 
reserve  the  filtrate  (A)  for  further  treatment.  Dry  the  filter 
and  residue  to  constant  weight  at  iio"  C.  The  weight  of 
the  residue  multiplied  by  100  is  the  percentage  of  sand, 
clay,  and  organic  matter.  Place  the  filter  and  residue  in  a 
tared  platinum  crucible  and  incinerate.  The  weight  of  the 
residue  (A)  multiplied  by  100  is  the  percentage  of  sand  and 
clay  (silica  and  combined  silica  and  alumina).  The  differ- 
ence between  this  percentage  and  that  obtained  before 
incineration  is  the  percentage  of  organic  matter. 

133.  Determination  of  Soluble  Silica.— Evapo- 
rate the  filtrate  (A)   from  the   preceding  determination  to 


ANALYSIS  OF  LIMESTONE.  149 

strict  dryness,  on  the  water-bath,  using  a  platinum  or 
porcelain  dish.  Moisten  the  residue  with  hydrochloric  acid 
and  again  evaporate  to  dryness.  It  is  advisable  to  continue 
the  heat  for  an  hour  or  longer  after  apparent  dryness,  to 
insure  the  insolubility  of  the  silica.  Treat  the  residue  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid  ;  collect  the  insoluble  portion  on 
a  small  quantitative  filter  and  wash  it  thoroughly  with  hot 
water  until  free  of  chlorides.  Reserve  the  filtrate  (B)  for 
further  use.  Partially  dry  the  filter  and  contents,  then  in- 
sert it  in  a  tared  platinum  crucible,  and  char  it  by  the  appli- 
cation of  a  very  gentle  heat.  If  charred  too  rapidly,  there 
may  be  difficulty  in  subsequently  burning  off  the  carbon. 
Increase  the  heat  until  the  filter  is  completely  incinerated, 
and  then  raise  to  bright  redness.  Cool  in  a  desiccator 
and  weigh.  The  weight  of  the  ash  of  good  quantitative 
filters,  or  of  the  so-called  "  ashless  filters,"  is  so  small  that 
it  need  not  be  taken  into  account. 

The  weight  of  the  residue,  multiplied  by  loo,  is  the  per- 
centage of  silica,  SiOa,  in  the  soluble  silicates  of  the  stone. 

134.  Determination  of  Total  Silica. — Mix  the 
residue  A  (139),  in  the  platinum  crucible  with  four  or  five 
times  its  weight  of  ^  mixed  carbonates  of  sodium  and 
potassium,  and  fuse  at  a  red  heat.  Continue  the  heat 
about  30  minutes  after  the  contents  of  the  crucible  are  in  a 
quiet  state  of  fusion. 

Remove  the  bulk  of  the  mass  from  the  crucible,  while 
still  warm,  with  a  platinum  wire,  to  facilitate  the  subsequent 
solution.  Place  the  crucible  and  the  material  removed 
from  it  in  a  beaker  and  treat  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid, 
being  careful  to  avoid  loss  by  the  projection  of  the  liquid 
from  the  glass.  Use  heat,  if  required.  Wash  and  remove 
the  crucible.  Filter  the  solution  and  evaporate  to  strict 
dryness,  as  under  soluble  silica  in  the  preceding  paragraph 
(133).  Treat  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  collect  the 
residue  as  before,  and  reserve  the  filtrate  (C).  Incinerate 
and  heat  to  bright  redness,  weigh,  and   calculate  the  per- 


•  Use  strictly  chemically  pure,  dry  carbonate  of  sodium  and  potassium, 
mixed  in  molecular  proportions  and  finely  powdered.  The  proportions 
are  io6  parts  sodium  carbonate  to  138  parts  potassium  carbonate. 


150       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

centage  of  silica  as  described  in  the  preceding  paragraph. 
Subtract  the  percentage  of  soluble  from  that  of  the  total 
silica,  to  obtain  the  percentage  of  silica  present  as  sand 
in  insoluble  silicates. 

135.  Determination  of  Iron  and  Alumina.— 
Combine  filtrates  A,  B,  and  C  from  the  preceding  opera- 
tions and  concentrate  to  a  convenient  volume.  Add  a 
slight  excess  of  pure  ammonia  while  the  solution  is  still 
hot,  boil  until  only  a  slight  odor  of  ammonia  can  be 
detected,  collect  the  precipitate  on  a  small  filter,  filtering 
rapidly  while  the  solution  is  hot.  If  there  be  considerable 
iron  and  alumina  present,  it  is  advisable  to  dissolve  the 
precipitate  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  and  reprecipitate 
with  ammonia  as  directed  above,  uniting  the  filtrates  (D). 
Partly  dry  both  filters,  and  incinerate  as  advised  in  133. 
If  the  so-called  ashless  filters  be  used,  no  correction  need 
be  made  for  the  weight  of  the  ash  from  the  two  filters. 

The  residue  consists  of  the  mixed  oxides  of  iron  and 
alumina  (FcaOa ,  AI2O3).  Multiply  the  weight  of  the  resi- 
due by  100  to  •btain  the  percentage. 

It  is  not  usually  necessary  to  determine  the  iron  and 
alumina  separately.  If  required,  however,  proceed  as 
follows:  Treat  i  gram  of  the  powdered  limestone  with 
concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  most  conveniently  in  a 
platinum  dish.  Evaporate  to  strict  dryness,  moisten  with 
hydrochloric  acid,  and  again  dry  on  the  water-bath,  as 
described  in  133,  in  the  silica  determination.  Treat  the 
residue  with  dilute  hydrochloric  acid,  with  heat,  and  filter; 
wash  the  filter  with  hot  water,  and  treat  the  filtrate  with 
ammonia,  as  described  above,  to  precipitate  the  iron  and 
alumina.  Wash  the  precipitate  into  a  small  dish,  dissolve 
it  in  sulphuric  acid,  and  evaporate  the  solution  nearly  to 
dryness.  Wash  the  residue  into  an  Erlenmeyer  flask, 
being  cautious  in  the  first  addition  of  water. 

The  iron  is  now  most  conveniently  determined  by  titra- 
tion with  a  standardized  solution  of  permanganate  of 
potassium  (202). 

Add  a  small  quantity  of  pure  zinc-dust  to  the  solution  in 
the  flask,  to  reduce  the  iron  from  the  ferric  to  the  ferrous 
state,  and  titrate  with  the  decinormal  permanganate  solu- 


ANALYSIS   OF   LIMESTONE.  151 

tion.  This  solution  is  added  until  a  faint  permanent  pink 
color  is  produced.  Multiply  the  burette  reading  by  .008  to 
obtain  the  weight  of  ferric  oxide  in  i  gram  of  the  stone. 
Multiply  this  weight  by  100  to  obtain  the  percentage  of 
ferric  oxide  (FeaO»);  subtract  this  number  from  the  com- 
bined percentages  of  iron  and  alumina,  as  obtained  above, 
to  obtain  the  percentage  of  alumina. 

136.  Deteriuiiiatioii  of  Calcium,— To  the  filtrate 
from  the  iron  and  alumina  determination  (D),  correspond- 
ing to  I  gram  of  the  stone,  add  sufficient  hydrochloric  acid 
to  render  it  slightly  acid.  Concentrate  this  solution  to  a 
convenient  volume,  neutralize  with  ammonia,  heat  to  boil- 
ing, and  add  an  excess  of  boiling-hot  oxalate  of  ammoniunv 
solution.  Set  aside  for  12  hours,  then  collect  the  precipi- 
tate of  oxalate  of  calcium  on  a  quantitative  filter,  wash 
with  cold  water  (filtrate  E),  dry  and  incinerate  the  filter  in 
a  tared  platinum  crucible,  then  ignite  the  residue  strongly. 
The  residue  consists  of  almost  pure  calcium  oxide  (CaO), 
and  maybe  weighed  as  such,  or,  more  accurately,  it  may  be 
converted  into  the  sulphate  (CaS04)  or  carbonate  (CaCOa), 
and  weighed  as  such.  It  requires  less  time  and  labor  to 
convert  into  the  sulphate,  using  the  following  solution: 

Dilute  one  volume  of  sulphuric  acid  with  an  equal  vol- 
ume of  water,  and  neutralize  three  parts  of  stronger  water 
of  ammonia  with  this  acid,  then  add  two  parts  of  ammonia. 
Dissolve  2  grams  of  ammonium  chloride  in  each  100  cc.  of 
this  solution.  Filter,  if  necessary,  and  preserve  for  use  in 
calcium  determinations.  Strictly  chemically  pure  reagents 
must  be  used  in  preparing  this  solution. 

Add  an  excess  of  the  ammonium  sulphate  solution,  pre- 
pared as  above,  to  the  residue  in  the  crucible,  evaporate  to 
dryness,  ignite  strongly,  cool  and  weigh.  The  weight  of 
the  residue  multiplied  by  .41158  gives  the  weight  of 
calcium  oxide  (CaO),  and  by  .73416  the  weight  of  calcium 
carbonate  (CaCOs),  in  i  gram  of  the  stone,  and  these 
numbers  multiplied  by  100  give  the  percentages  of  calcium 
oxide  (quicklime)  and  calcium  carbonate,  respectively. 

The  residue  may  be  converted  directly  into  calcium  car- 
bonate, if  preferred,  as  follows:  Mix  it  with  finely  pow- 
dered   ammonium    carbonate,    moisten    with    water,    heat 


152       HANDBOOK   TOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

some  time  to  expel  the  ammonia  at  a  temperature  between 
50°  and  80°  C,  then  below  a  red  heat.  Repeat  this  opera- 
tion until  a  constant  weight  of  carbonate  of  calcium  is 
obtained.  The  weight  of  the  carbonate  of  calcium  multi- 
plied by  .56  gives  the  weight  of  calcium  oxide  in  i  gram 
of  the  stone.  The  weight  of  calcium  carbonate  multiplied 
by  100  is  the  percentage  of  calcium  carbonate,  or  that  of 
the  calcium  oxide  multiplied  by  100  is  the  percentage  of 
this  substance. 

137.  Determination  of  Magnesium.— To  the 
filtrate  E,  from  the  calcium  determination  (136),  after 
concentration  to  approximately  100  cc,  corresponding  to 
I  gram  of  the  stone,  add  a  slight  excess  of  ammonium 
hydrate,  then  add,  drop  by  drop,  with  vigorous  stirring, 
sodium  phosphate  solution  in  excess  to  precipitate  the 
magnesium  as  a  phosphate.  After  15  minutes  add  a 
decided  excess  of  ammonia.  Set  aside  several  hours, 
preferably  overnight,  to  insure  the  complete  precipitation. 
Collect  the  precipitate  in  a  Gooch  crucible,  wash  with 
dilute  ammonia,  i  part  stronger  ammonia,  0.96  specific 
gravity,  to  3  parts  water.  The  washing  should  be  con- 
tinued until  a  drop  of  silver  nitrate  solution  added  to  a 
drop  of  the  filtrate,  acidulated  with  nitric  acid,  produces  at 
most  only  a  faint  opalescence.  The  precipitate  is  ammo- 
nium-magnesium phosphate;  dry  it,  first  at  a  gentle  heat, 
then  increase  the  temperature  to  expel  the  ammonia,  and 
finally  ignite  a  few  minutes  in  the  flame  of  a  blast-lamp  to 
convert  the  residue  into  pyrophosphate  of  magnesium. 
Cool  the  residue  in  a  desiccator  and  weigh  it.  The  weight 
of  the  magnesium  pyrophosphate  (MgjPsOT)  multiplied  by 
.36208  gives  the  corresponding  weight  of  magnesium  oxide. 
The  magnesium  is  present  in  limestone  as  carbonate.  To 
obtain  the  weight  of  the  carbonate,  multiply  the  weight  of 
the  pyrophosphate  by  .7574.  Multiply  by  100  to  obtain  the 
percentages  of  the  weight  of  the  stone. 

In  limestones  which  contain  very  little  magnesium,  the 
method  proposed  by  Prinsen  Geerligs  and  modified  by 
Herzfeld  ^  and  Forster  may  be  used.       Dissolve  2  grams  of" 

1  Zeit.  RUbenzucker -Industrie,  1896. 


ANALYSIS  OF  LIMESTOKE.  153 

the  powdered  stone  in  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid  in  a 
porcelain  dish.  Evaporate  to  dryness  on  a  hot-plate  or 
sand-bath,  then  heat  over  a  naked  flame,  to  render  the  silica 
insoluble.  Treat  the  residue  with  hydrochloric  acid,  boil, 
add  a  few  drops  of  nitric  acid,  and  evaporate  to  small  bulk, 
to  expel  the  greater  part  of  the  acid..  Dilute  the  solution 
with  water,  and  add  an  excess  of  calcium  carbonate,  to  pre- 
cipitate the  iron  and  alumina  and  filter  into  a  flask,  wash- 
ing the  precipitate  with  hot  water.  Add  lime-water  in 
excess  to  the  filtrate,  mix,  then  fill  the  flask  to  almost  the 
top  of  the  neck  with  water.  Stopper  the  flask  and  set  it 
aside  for  the  precipitate  to  settle,  then  decant  the  super- 
natant liquid  through  a  filter,  and  wash  the  precipitate  by 
decantation  as  before.  Dissolve  the  precipitate,  including 
any  particles  which  may  adhere  to  the  filter,  using  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Precipitate  the  calcium  from  the  solution,  as 
described  in  136,  with  oxalate  of  ammonium,  and  remove 
it  by  filtration;  precipitate  the  magnesium  as  ammonium- 
magnesium  phosphate,  and  convert  it  into  the  pyrophos- 
phate as  already  described. 

138.  Deteriiiiuation  of  Carbonic  Acid.— It  is 
not  usually  necessary  to  determine  the  carbonic  acid,  as  it 
may  be  calculated  from  the  quantity  required  to  combine 
with  the  lime  and  magnesia,  except  when  sulphates  are 
present. 

The  gravimetric  determination  is  made  with  one  of  the 
various  forms  of  alkalimeters.  Knorr's  apparatus,  Fig.  55, 
is  one  of  the  best  of  these.  The  method  of  using  this  ap- 
paratus is  as  follows:  A  weighed  quantity,  5  grams  or 
more,  of  the  finely  powdered  limestone,  is  introduced  into 
the  flask  (Fig.  55),  with  50  cc.  or  more  of  distilled  water. 
The  tube  G  is  connected  with  a  filter-pump  to  draw  a  cur- 
rent of  air  through  the  apparatus  during  the  entire  pro- 
cess. The  bulb  B  contains  the  acid  for  decomposing  the 
stone,  preferably  concentrated  hydrochloric.  Cis  a  guard- 
tube,  filled  with  fragments  of  caustic  soda  or  potash,  or 
with  soda-lime,  to  prevent  the  entrance  of  carbonic  acid, 
with  the  air.  Open  the  stop-cock  on  the  bulb-tube  B  and 
admit  the  acid  slowly;  the  liberated  gas  passes  into  the  tube 
/?,   where   most    of   the    moisture    is    condensed,   thence 


154       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

through  the  bulbs  E,  containing  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  which  removes  every  trace  of  moisture  ;  the  dry  gas 
bubbles  through  the  tared  bulbs  F,  containing  a  caustic 
potash  solution  of  1.27  specific  gravity,  which  absorbs  the 
carbonic  acid,  and  the  residual  air,  containing  moisture 
from  the  potash  solution,  passes  on  through  the  guard- 
tube  F,  which  absorbs  the  moisture,  and  escapes  through  G 
and  the  filter-pump.      The  gas  should  flow  at  the  rate  of 


Fig.  55. 

4  to  5  bubbles  per  second.  When  the  bulb  B  is  empty, 
heat  the  contents  of  the  flask  carefully,  fiinally  boiling  the 
liquid  slowly,  to  expel  the  carbonic  acid.  Air  should  be 
passed  through  the  apparatus  for  a  few  minutes  after 
boiling,  to  insure  the  removal  of  all  the  carbonic  acid. 
Caps  should  be  placed  over  the  inlet  and  outlet  tubes  of  F 
while  making  the  v.eighings,  to  prevent  the  absorption  of 
carbonic  acid  or  moisture.  When  the  operation  is  com- 
pleted, place  the  bulbs  and  guard-tube  F  in  the  balance- 
case,  and  after  a  few  minutes,  weigh.  The  increase  in 
weight  divided  b;^  the  weight  of  material  used  and  multi- 
plied by  100  is  the  i,crcentage  of  carbonic  acid. 

A  similar  apparatus  may  be  fitted  up,  using  an  ordinary 


ANALYSIS  OF   LIMESTONE.  155 

flask,  with  cork  connections  and  an  empty  U-tube,  as  rec- 
ommended by  Gladding,  instead  of  the  condenser  D. 

In  the  determination  of  carbonic  acid  with  Schroetter's 
or  similar  apparatus,  proceed  as  follows:  The  description 
refers  to  Fig.  56.  Fill  the  tube  on  the  left, 
to  above  the  upper  bulb,  with  concentrated 
sulphuric  acid,  and  that  on  the  right  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  Weigh  the  flask 
and  contents,  then  introduce  approximately 
1.5  to  2  grams  of  the  powdered  limestone 
by  the  opening  at  the  left  and  weigh  again. 
The  difference  in  the  two  weights  is  the 
weight  of  the  powder  used.  Lift  the  stop- 
per on  the  hydrochloric-acid  tube,  and  open 
,  ,,,.,.,         .  ,     T      ,  Fig.  56. 

the  stop-cock  and  admit  a  little  acid.    In  the 

decomposition  of  the  stone,  the  carbonic  acid  is  given  off 
and  bubbles  through  the  sulphuric  acid,  which  retains  any 
watery  vapor  that  would  otherwise  pass  off  with  the  gas. 
Repeat  this  operation  from  time  to  time  until  no  more  car- 
bonic acid  is  disengaged.  Add  small  excess  of  the  hydro- 
chloric acid.  Heat  gently,  to  expel  the  carbonic  acid  from 
the  solution,  cool,  and  weigh.  After  cooling  and  wiping 
the  apparatus,  it  should  be  placed  inside  the  balance  case  a 
few  minutes  before  weighing.  The  loss  in  weight  is  the 
weight  of  carbonic  acid  set  free.  Divide  this  weight  by 
the  weight  of  limestone  used  and  multiply  by  100  to  obtain 
the  percentage  of  carbonic  acid. 

The  carbonic  acid  in  the  limestones,  used  in  sugar-manu- 
facture, is  almost  entirely  combined  with  the  calcium;  a 
small  portion  is  usually  combined  with  magnesium,  and 
occasionally  the  stone  contains  a  vein  of  dolomite,  a  car- 
bonate of  calcium  and  magnesium.  In  the  absence  of  gyp- 
sum, sulphate  of  calcium,  if  either  the  percentages  of 
calcium  or  magnesium  and  carbonic  acid  are  given,  the 
percentages  of  the  two  carbonates  may  be  calculated:  The 
percentage  of  calcium  oxide  (CaO)  X  1-7857  =  percentage 
of  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOa);  the  percentage  of  carbonic 
acid  in  the  magnesium  carbonate  (MgCOs)  multiplied  by 
1. 916  =  the  percentage  of  magnesium  carbonate. 

Example. — A  sample  of  limestone  contains  54.8  per  cent 


156       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

calcium  oxide  and  43.4  per  cent  carbonic  acid ;  required,  the 
percentages  of  calcium  carbonate  and  magnesium  carbon- 
ate. 

Calculation, 

54.8    X    1.7875  =  97.96,  per  cent  calcium  carbonate. 
97.96—54.8        =  43.16,  carbonic    acid    in  the  calcium  car- 
bonate. 
43.4    —43.16      =    0.24,  carbonic    acid    in    the    magnesium 
carbonate. 
0.24  X     1. 916    =    0.46,  the  per  cent  magnesium  carbonate. 

Many  sugar-house  chemists  calculate  the  carbonates  in 
this  way  in  order  to  economize  time.  In  many  cases  this 
method  will  supply  all  the  information  necessary  relative 
to  the  purity  of  the  stone,  but  it  is  not  usually  advisable  to 
depend  entirely  upon  it.  A  serious  objection  to  this  process 
is  the  fact  that  there  may  be  slight  errors  in  the  determina- 
tions of  the  calcium  and  carbonic  acid  which  would  lead  to 
false  deductions.  It  is  advisable,  as  a  rule,  to  determine 
both  the  bases  and  the  acid. 

139.  Dstermiriation  of  Sulphuric  Acid.— The 
limestone  may  contain  small  quantities  of  sulphate  of  calr 
cium,  which  is  calculated  from  the  percentage  of  sulphuric 
acid.  Digest  5  grams  or  more  of  the  powdered  limestone 
with  hydrochloric  acid,  using  heat.  Dilute  the  solution,  fil- 
ter, and  wash  the  residue  thoroughly  with  hot  water.  Evap- 
orate the  filtrate  to  a  very  small  bulk,  to  remove  the 
greater  part  of  the  acid.  Precipitate  the  sulphuric  acid 
with  barium  chloride,  as  described  in  the  analysis  of  coke 
(149).  The  weight  of  barium  sulphate  (BaS04)  X  .34271  -^ 
weight  of  limstone  used  X  100  =  percentage  of  sulphuric 
anhydride  (SO3);  the  weight  of  barium  sulphate  X  .5828  -f- 
weight  of  limestone  used  X  100  =  percentage  of  calcium 
sulphate. 

140.  Notes  on  the  Analysis  of  liimestone.— 
It  may  be  necessary  in  some  of  the  determinations  to  use  a 
larger  portion  of  the  stone  than  i  gram.  If  so,  it  is  more 
convenient  to  use  a  multiple  of  i  gram,  and  dissolve  and 
dilute  to  a  definite  volume  5  grams  to  500  cc,  for  example. 


ANALYSIS    OF   LIMESTOiq"E.  157 

and  use  measured  portions  of  this  solution  for  the  deter- 
minations. 

A  Gooch  crucible  will  often  be  found  much  more  con- 
venient for  the  filtrations  and  ignitions  than  filter-paper  and 
an  ordinary  crucible. 

In  the  methods  of  analysis,  only  those  determinations  are 
given  which  are  necessary  in  judging  a  limestone  for  su- 
gar-house purposes.  A  number  of  analyses  of  limestones 
is  given  on  page  213,  with  remarks  on  the  values  of  the 
stones  for  use  in  sugar  manufacture. 

Sundstrom  '  has  suggested  a  method  for  the  rapid  analysis 
of  a  limestone,  an  abstract  of  which  follows: 

(A)  Weigh  two  portions  of  i  gram  each  of  the  finely- 
powdered  sample,  transfer  to  a  small  dish  and  add  about 
100  cc.  of  distilled  water  to  each.  To  one  portion  add  25  cc. 
of  normal  hydrochloric  acid  (197),  cover  the  dish  with  a 
watch-glass  until  all  action  ceases  ;  heat  to  boiling,  cool,  and 
titrate  with  normal  sodium  hydrate  (201),  using  methyl 
orange  as  an  indicator.  The  number  of  cc.'s  of  normal 
hydrochloric  acid  —  the  number  of  cc.'s  of  normal  soda 
solution  =  cc.'s  of  normal  hydrochloric  acid  required  to 
saturate  the  carbonates  of  lime  and  magnesia. 

(6)  To  the  second  portion  of  i  gram  cautiously  add  5  cc. 
of  concentrated  hydrochloric  acid,  keeping  the  dish  covered 
to  avoid  loss.  After  all  effervescence  ceases,  evaporate 
the  material  to  complete  dryness  over  a  low  flame.  When 
dry,  cool,  take  up  with  a  little  hot  water  and  a  few  drops  of 
hydrochloric  acid  ;  heat  to  boiling,  filter  through  an  ashless 
filter,  washing  all  insoluble  portions  into  the  filter,  and 
wash  free  of  all  traces  of  chlorides  with  boiling  water. 

(C)  Dry  the  filter  and  contents;  ignite  in  a  platinum  cruci- 
ble to  bright  redness,  cool  under  a  desiccator  and  weigh  for 
silica.     (SiOa). 

(D)  Neutralize  the  filtrate  and  washings  from  (B)  with 
ammonium  hydrate,  in  slight  excess  ;  heat  to  boiling,  col- 
lect the  precipitate  and  wash  free  of  chlorides.  Dry  and 
ignite  the  filter  and  contents;  cool  and  weigh  for  oxides  of 
iron  and  aluminum  (FejOs  and  AUOs). 

>  Journal  of  the  Society  of  Chemical  Industry^  16.  sao. 


158       HANDBOOK  POU  StGAft-HOUSE  CMEMlSTS. 

(E)  Heat  the  filtrate  and  washings  from  (D)  to  boiling, 
add  a  concentrated  solution  of  oxalate  of  ammonium,  also 
heated  to  boiling.  Allow  to  stand  until  clear,  which,  if 
the  analysis  have  been  rightly  conducted,  requires  two 
or  three  minutes  ;  decant  the  clear  solution  into  a  filter, 
dissolve  the  precipitate  in  hydrochloric  acid  and  repre- 
cipitate  with  ammonium  hydrate.  Allow  to  settle  aind  de- 
cant as  before,  and  then  wash  the  whole  precipitate  into 
the  filter  and  wash  with  hot  water  until  free  of  chlorides 
and  oxalates.  Dry  the  filter  and  contents,  ignite  in  a 
platinum  crucible,  at  first  cautiously,  then  over  a  blast- 
lamp,  until  the  residue  is  converted  into  calcium  oxide 
(daO)  ;  cool  under  a  desiccator,  weigh  and  calculate  the 
weight  of  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOa).  Titrate  the  residue 
with  norrrial  hydrochloric  acid  as  a  check. 

Divide  the  percentage  of  calcium  carbonate  by  5  (=  cc.  of 
^'6rmal  hydrochloric  acid  required  for  calcium  carbonate), 
'Subtract  the  quotient  from  the  number  of  cc.  of  normal 
hydrochldric  acid  required  for  (A),  and  multiply  the  re- 
mainder by  4.2  to  obtain  the  percentage  of  MgCOs.    ' 

'' Suhdstrom   states    that   this    method  is  very  rapid  and 
sufficiently  accurate  for  practical  purposes. 

bv^TtJvoD  rfstb  drfJ  :^ 

n^d'^r    .-:  •^.::  •.  - ' . 

to  '■.qo-'.b  •■ 


baa  viG 


ANALYSIS  OF   LIME.  159 


ANALYSIS  OF  LIME. 

141.  Determination  of  the  Calcium  Oxide 
(Ijime). — Add  suflScient  water  (30  cc.  ca.)  to  10  grams  of 
lime,  in  a  mortar,  to  form  a  thick  milk.  Add  an  excess  of 
pure  sucrose  in  the  form  of  a  solution  of  35-40°  Brix  and 
mix  intimately  with  the  lime  which  dissolves,  a  soluble 
saccharate  being  formed.  Transfer  the  solution  and  residue 
to  a  loo-cc.  flask,  using  a  sugar  solution  of  the  above 
composition  to  wash  the  last  portions  from  the  mortar 
and  to  complete  the  volume  to  100  cc. ;  mix  and  filter. 
Titrate  10  cc.  of  the  filtrate  with  a  normal  solution  of  hy- 
drochloric acid  (107),  using  phenolphthalein  or  lacmoid  as 
an  indicator.  The  burette  reading  X  .028  =  the  weight  of 
calcium  oxide  (CaO)  in  i  gram  of  the  lime,  and  X  100  =  per- 
centage of  calcium  oxide. 

142.  Determination  of  the  Proportion  of  Un- 
burned  and  Slalced  Lime. — Slake  i  gram  of  lime  with 
water,  add  an  excess  of  normal  sulphuric  acid  (178)  and 
heat  to  expel  carbonic  acid  if  present;  add  a  few  drops  of 
cochineal  solution  (215)  or  other  suitable  indicator,  and 
ascertain  the  excess  of  sulphuric  acid  used,  by  titration 
with  normal  sodium  hydrate  (180).  Calculation:  (cc.  of 
normal  sulphuric  acid  —  cc.  of  normal  soda  solution)  X  .028 
=  the  total  weight  of  calcium,  as  calcium  oxide,  in  i  gram 
of  the  lime,  and  X  100  =  the  percentage  of  total  calcium  as 
calcium  oxide.  This  number  —  percentage  of  calcium  oxide 
(141)  =  percentage  of  unburned  and  slaked  lime  as  cal- 
cium oxide. 

143.  Determination  of  Calcium  Oxide,  etc. 
Degener-Lunge  Method. — Both  the  above  determi- 
nations may  be  made  with  one  titration,  using  phenacetoline 
as  suggested  by  Degener  and  applied  by  Lunge. 

Slake  a  weighed  portion  of  the  lime  with  water,  add  a  few 


160      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

drops  of  phenacetoline  solution  and  titrate  with  normal 
hydrochloric  acid.  Add  the  acid  until  the  yellow  color 
changes  to  a  red,  and  read  the  burette.  This  reading 
multiplied  by  .028  gives  the  weight  of  calcium  oxide.  Con- 
tinue the  addition  of  the  acid;  the  solution  remains  of  a  red 
color  until  all  the  calcium  is  saturated,  then  changes  to  a 
golden  yellow.  It  is  advisable  to  make  this  titration  a  few 
times  for  practice  with  material  of  known  composition. 
The  burette  reading  multiplied  by  .028  gives  the  total 
weight  of  calcium  as  calcium  oxide.  The  unburned  and 
slaked  limes  are  determined  by  difference. 

144.  Complete  Analysis. — The  methods  described 
for  limestones,  page  148,  may  be  applied  for  a  further 
analysis  of  the  lime  if  requiretL 


AiJALYSlS  OF  SULPHUB.  161 


ANALYSIS  OF  SULPHUR. 

146.  Estimation   of  the  Impurities.— Transfer 

0.5  gram  of  the  powdered  sulphur  to  a  flask  provided  with 
a  well-fttted  glass  stopper.  Add  at  one  time  an  excess  of 
saturated  bromine-water  and  shake  thoroughly.  Water 
dissolves  2  to  3.25  per  cent  of  bromine  at  ordinary  temper- 
ature, and,  as  at  least  15  parts  bromine  are  required  for  1 
part  of  sulphur,  it  is  advisable  to  use  from  275  to  400  cc.  of 
the  bromine  water  to  insure  sufficient  of  the  reagent  for  the 
oxidation  of  the  sulphur  to  sulphuric  acid.  Boil  the  solu- 
tion to  expel  the  excess  of  bromine,  collect  the  residue  and 
wash  with  hot  water;  dry  and  weigh.  A  Gooch  crucible  is 
convenient  for  collecting  the  residue.  The  weight  of  the 
residue  X  200  =  percentage  of  impurities.  The  percentage 
of  sulphur  may  be  determined  directly  from  the  proportion 
of  sulphuric  acid  in  the  filtrate  (149),  or,  with  sufficient 
accuracy  for  practical  purposes,  by  subtracting  the  per- 
centage of  impurities  from  100. 

Commercial  roll-sulphur  is  usually  very  pure.  Its  qual- 
ity can  generally  be  satisfactorily  determined  from  its  color 
and  relative  freedom  from  dust  and  small  fragments. 


163      HAl^DBOOK  FOR  SUGAE-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


ANALYSIS  OF  COKE. 

146.  Preparation  of  the  Sample.— The  sample 
should  be  obtained  as  with  limestone  (130),  and  be  very 
finely  powdered. 

147.  Deterinination  of  the  Moisture.— Heat  2 

to  3  grams  of  the  powdered  coke  in  a  tared  flat  dish  or  a 
watch-glass  in  an  oven  at  a  temperature  of  ilo"  C.  Three 
hours'  heating  is  usually  sufficient  for  drying  the  sample. 
Loss  of  weight  -^  weight  of  material  used  X  100  =  per  cent 
moisture.  The  author  is  of  the  opinion,  though  not  based 
upon  experiment,  that  more  satisfactory  results  would  be 
obtained  in  drying  coke  or  coal  in  a  vacuum-oven. 

148.  Deterinination  of  the  Ash. — Place  2  grams 
of  the  finely-powdered  coke  in  a  flat  platinum  dish  and  heat 
in  a  muffle,  first  at  a  moderate  temperature  and  finally  at  a 
high  temperature..  Cool  and  moisten  the  ash  with  strong 
alcohol  (Muck's  method),  then  repeat  the  heating  in  the 
muffle  until  all  the  carbon  is  burned  off.  The  weight  of  the 
ash  -^  weight  of  material  used  X  too  —  per  cent  ash. 

149.  Determination  of  the  Sulphur. — Mix  i  gram 
of  the  powdered  coke  intimately  with  i  gram  of  calcined 
magnesia  and  0.5  gram  anhydrous  sodium  carbonate.  Heat 
over  a  lamp  in  an  open  platinum  crucible,  inclined  so  that 
only  its  lower  half  may  be  brought  to  a  red  heat.  The  ig- 
nition requires  forty-five  to  sixty  minutes;  the  mixture 
should  be  stirred  with  a  platinum  rod  every  five  minutes. 
The  process  is  complete  when  the  ash  is  yellowish  or 
brownish.  Let  the  mixture  become  quite  cold,  mix  in- 
timately with  the  ash,  by  means  of  a  rod,  i  to  i  gram  of  am- 
monium nitrate,  and  heat  to  redness  for  five  to  ten  minutes, 
the  crucible  being  covered  with  its  lid.^  The  sodium  car- 
bonate may  be   advantageously  replaced  by  carbonate  of 

»  Crooke's  Select  Methods^  3d  ed.,  588. 


ANALYSTS   OF   COKE.  163 


with  distilled  water.  Detach  adhering  portions  of  the 
residue  from  the  crucible  with  hot  water,  aided  by  a  rod, 
and  wash  into  the  beaker.  Heat  to  dissolve  the  sul- 
phate formed,  filter  and  wash  the  residue  with  hot  water. 
Determine  the  sulphuric  acid  in  the  filtrate,  as  barium 
sulphate  :  Concentrate  the  filtrate  in  a  beaker,  to  a  volume 
of  approximately  50  cc,  if  necessary  acidulate  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  heat  to  boiling  and  add  a  solution  of  barium 
chloride.  Add  the  barium  solution  gradually,  a  few  drops 
«t  a  time,  keeping  the  liquid  at  the  boiling-point.  Remove 
the  beaker  from  the  lamp  after  each  addition,  for  the  sub- 
sidence of  the  barium  sulphate.  Add  a  drop  of  the  barium 
chloride  solution  and  note  whether  a  precipitate  forms  in 
the  clear  supernatant  liquid.  Continue  the  boiling  and 
addition  of  the  reagent  until  there  is  no  further  separa- 
tion of  the  sulphate.  Collect  the  precipitate  in  a  tared 
Gooch  crucible,  wash  with  hot  water,  dry  and  heat  to  red- 
ness. The  weight  of  the  residue,  barium  sulphate 
(BaS04),  X -13734  =  the  weight  of  sulphur;  this  weight 
-T-  weight  of  coke  used  X  100  =  per  cent  sulphur  in  the  coke. 

*  ChentikevZeitung,  1892,  60. 


164       HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


LUBRICATING  OILS. 

150.  Tests  Applied  to  Lubricating  Oils.— A 

few  oil  tests  may  be  made  in  the  sugar-house  laboratory 
without  expensive  or  special  apparatus.  Some  of  the* 
methods  given  here,  while  not  assuring  the  greatest  accu- 
racy, will  generally  answer  for  sugar-house  purposes.  The 
usual  tests  are  the  "  cold  test,"  viscosity,  the  acidity  or 
alkalinity  and  the  purity. 

151.  Cold  Test.— Pour  a  portion  of  the  oil,  to  the 
depth  of  approximately  one  and  a  half  inches,  into  a  test- 
tube  one  and  three-eighths  inches  in  diameter.  Plunge  the 
tube  into  a  freezing  mixture  and  stir  with  a  thermometer 
until  the  paraffine  begins  to  separate,  or  until  the  oil  ceases 
to  flow,  on  inclining  the  tube.  Remove  the  tube  from  the 
mixture  and  hold  it  between  the  eye  and  the  light  and  note 
the  temperature  at  which  the  paraffine  disappears.  The 
oil  must  be  stirred  during  the  entire  test.  Repeat  the  test 
two  or  three  times  and  record  the  mean  of  the  two  readings 
which  agree  best  with  one  another  as  the  temperature  of 
the  cold  test.  With  very  dark  oils,  and  with  certain  other 
oils,  the  beginning  of  the  separation  of  the  paraffine  can- 
not be  noted  with  accuracy,  hence  the  reading  is  made  at 
the  temperature  at  which  the  oil  ceases  to  flow. 

152.  Viscosity  Test.— -The  viscosity  test  is  best 
made  with  a  viscosimeter,  such  as  described  in  114.  The 
method  of  making  tests  with  these  instruments  is  suffi- 
ciently described  in  the  sections  cited.  In  the  absence 
of  a  viscosimeter,  a  moderately  accurate  test  may  be  made 
with  a  large  pipette.  The  pipette  should  be  inclosed  in 
a  water-jacket  so  that  the  oil  may  be  heated  to  15.5"*  C,  or 
100°  C,  as  its  nature  requires.  The  pipette  is  standardized 
with  pure  rape-oil  or  other  oil  that  may  easily  be  obtained 
in  a  state  of  great  purity.     The  time,  in  seconds,  required 


LUBRICATING    OILS.  165 

for  the  flow  of  50  cc.  of  the  rape-oil  is  noted  by  means 
of  a  stop-watch.  The  pipette  is  then  filled  with  the 
sample  to  be  tested  and  its  flow  noted  under  the  same  con- 
ditions as  before.  According  to  Redwood,  the  average 
time  required  for  the  flow  of  50  cc.  of  rape-oil,  with  his 
viscosimeter,  is  535  seconds  at  60°  F.,  and  the  viscosity  of 
the  oil  under  examination  in  terms  of  the  viscosity  of 
rape-oil  is  calculated  as  follows  :  Multiply  the  number 
of  seconds  required  for  the  flow  of  50  cc.  of  the  oil  by 
100  and  divide  the  product  by  535  (seconds  required  for 
the  flow  of  50  cc.  of  rape-oil  at  60°  F.)  ;  multiply  this  quo- 
tient by  the  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  under  examination, 
at  the  temperature  of  the  experiment,  and  divide  by  .915, 
the  specific  gravity  of  rape-oil  at  60°  F. 

It  is  very  difficult  to  graduate  the  orifice  of  a  pipette  to 
give  the  desired  flow.  For  houses  of  large  size  using  con- 
siderable quantities  of  oil,  it  is  desirable  to  provide  a 
viscosimeter  (Figs,  52  and  53).  The  viscosity  test  is  the 
most  important  in  judging  the  suitability  of  the  oil  for  the 
required  purpose. 

153.  Tests  for  Acidity  and  Alkalinity.— Shake 
a  portion  of  the  oil  with  hot  distilled  water  in  a  test-tube. 
After  the  oil  and  water  separate  on  standing,  test  the 
latter  for  acidity  and  alkalinity.  It  should  be  neutral  to 
test-paper.  Oils  are  usually  treated  with  sulphuric  acid 
followed  by  washing  with  water  and  caustic  soda.  The 
acid  especially  should  be  completely  removed,  otherwise 
the  bearings  of  the  machinery  may  be  injured. 

154.  Purity  Tests.— Boil  a  portion  of  the  oil  with 
distilled  water,  and,  after  allowing  the  two  substances  to 
separate,  examine  the  latter,  which  should  remain  clear 
and  transparent. 

In  testing  a  mineral  oil  for  admixture  with  animal  or 
vegetable  fats  and  oils,  proceed  as  follows  by  the  saponifica- 
tion method  :  Transfer  a  weighed  portion  of  the  oil  {e.g.,  2 
grams)  to  a  pressure-bottle,  and  heat  it  in  a  water-  or  steam- 
bath  with  25  cc.  of  alcoholic  potash  solution.  This  solution 
is  prepared  by  dissolving  40  grams  of  good  caustic  potash 
in  one  litre  of  95  per  cent  alcohol.  The  solution  must  be 
filtered    if   not    perfectly   clear.      The   flasks    used    in   the 


166       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Kjeldahl  nitrogen  determination  are  suitable  for  pressure- 
bottles.  The  stopper  of  the  bottle  must  be  tied  down  with 
strong  twine.  Continue  the  heating  about  one  hour,  re- 
volving the  flask  from  time  to  time  to  mix  its  contents.  A 
parallel  experiment  should  be  made  in  blank,  with  the  re- 
agent only.  Cool  the  bottles  to  the  room  temperature  and  ti- 
trate the  contents  with  half-normal  hydrochloric  acid  (197), 
using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator.  In  the  absence  of 
animal  and  vegetable  fats  and  oils,  the  results  of  the  two 
titrations  should  be  the  same.  Should  a  saponifiable  oil  be 
present  as  indicated  by  the  titration,  remove  the  alcohol  by 
distillation,  transfer  the  residue  to  aseparatory  funnel,  and 
extract  several  times  with  ether  to  remove  the  mineral 
oil  ;  evaporate  the  ether  solution  and  weigh  the  residue. 
The  saponifiable  oil,  i.e.^  animal  or  vegetable,  is  determined 
by  difference. 

The  saponification  test  may  also  be  conducted,  as  de- 
scribed above,  in  a  closed  flask,  but  without  alcohol.  Pour 
2  cc.  of  a  solution,  containing  loo  grams  of  the  pure 
potassiunf  hydroxide  in  58  grams  of  hot  distilled  water 
upon  2  grams  of  the  oil;  heat  one  hour  as  before;  cool, 
and  transfer  the  contents  of  the  flask  to  a  separatory  funnel 
and  extract  the  mineral  oil  with  ether  ;  evaporate  the 
ether  extract  and  weigh  the  residue,  consisting  of  the  min- 
eral oil.  Should  the  residue  weigh  less  than  2  grams 
saponifiable  bodies  are  present. 


ANAIiYSIS  AND   X'UKli'ICATlOJS'   OF   WATER.      167 


ANALYSIS    AND     PURIFICATION     OF    THE 
WATER  USED  IN  SUGAR  MANU- 
FACTURE. 

165.  Characteristics  of  Siiital)le  Water.— The 

condensation-waters  from  the  multiple  effects,  vacuum- 
pans,  etc.,  form  an  abundant  and  very  satisfactory  supply 
of  water  for  the  boilers. 

The  water  for  the  diffusion-battery  should  be  as  pure  as 
possible  and  should  contain  a  minimum  amount  of  calcium 
and  magnesium  salts  and  of  the  salts  referred  to  below  as 
melassigenic.  The  calcium  and  magnesium  salts,  notably 
the  bicarbonates  and  the  sulphate  of  calcium,  foul  the 
heating  surfaces  of  the  battery  and  evaporating  apparatus. 
The  bicarbonates  decompose  to  some  extent  in  the  diffusers 
and  deposit  the  normal  carbonates  upon  the  cossettes  and 
probably  influence  the  diffusion  unfavorably.  The  water 
should  not  contain  more  than  lo  parts  per  loo.ooo  of  cal- 
cium sulphate,  otherwise  incrustations  may  form  at  some 
stage  of  the  concentration  of  the  liquors. 

Pure  water  should  also  be  used  in  slaking  the  lime, 
though  for  economy  of  sugar  and  in  the  evaporation  cer- 
tain wash-waters  containing  sugar,  etc.,  are  used  for  this 
purpose. 

The  relative  melassigenic  effect  of  various  salts  is  indi- 
cated in  paragraph  180.  Water  obtained  from  rivers  does 
not  usually  contain  objectionable  quantities  of  melassigenic 
salts,  but  may  be  unsatisfactory  on  account  of  its  scale- 
forming  constituents. 

150.  Analysis. — Collection  of  Samples. — When  practi- 
cable, samples  should  be  collected  in  large  glass-stoppered 
bottles.  The  bottles  should  be  thoroughly  washed  and 
finally  rinsed  with  the  water  to  be  examined.  It  is  advisable 
to  use  new  bottles  for  this  purpose.  When  ordinary  corks 
must  be  used  they  should  be  new  and  thoroughly  washed 
with  the  water.  From  two  quarts  to  one  gallon  of  the 
water  will  usually  be  a  sufficient  quantity  of  the  analyses. 


168       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Total  Solids. — If  the  water  contain  a  small  quantity  of 
suspended  matter,  it  should  be  filtered.  Evaporate  loo  cc. 
of  the  water  to  dryness  in  a  tared  platinum  dish  over  a 
steam-  or  water-bath  which  should  have  porcelain  rings. 
The  residue  should  be  dried  to  constant  weight  in  an  oven 
at  ioo°  C.  The  weight  of  the  residue  in  milligrams  corre- 
sponds to  the  parts  of  total  solids  per  100,000  parts  of 
water.  Test  the  residue  for  nitrates  as  follows:  Place  a 
drop  of  a  solution  of  brucia  in  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid  on  a  white  porcelain  surface  and  add  a  fragment  of 
the  residue.  In  the  presence  of  nitrates  a  deep-red  color 
appears,  which  soon  changes  to  reddish  yellow.  Two 
drops  of  aniline  sulphate  solution,  with  one  drop  of  con- 
centrated sulphuric  acid,  give  a  rose-red  to  a  brown-red 
color  on  a  porcelain  plate,  with  nitrates.  If  nitrates  be 
present,  the  proportion  may  be  estimated  with  moderate 
accuracy  by  the  following  method: 

Nitrogen  of  Nitrates. — Mix  25  cc.  of  the  water  in  a  small 
Erlenmeyer  flask  with  50  cc.  pure  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid.  Titrate  immediately  with  a  solution  of  indigo  pre- 
pared as  described  farther  on.  The  indigo  solution  should 
be  added  until  the  color  changes  to  a  bluish  green.  The 
flask  must  be  shaken  during  the  entire  titration.  Repeat 
the  operation  with  a  fresh  portion  of  the  water  and  acid, 
adding  at  one  time  the  nearly  full  volume  of  the  indigo  solu- 
tion that  was  required  to  produce  the  green  color  in  the 
preliminary  titration;  continue  the  addition  of  the  indigo  in 
small  portions  until  the  bluish-green  color  is  produced. 
The  flask  must  be  shaken  as  in  the  preliminary  titration. 
The  indigo  solution  is  prepared  by  dissolving  i  part  of 
powdered  indigo  in  6  parts  of  pure  concentrated  sulphuric 
acid,  heating  on  the  water-bath,  if  necessary,  to  promote 
solution.  Add  240  cc.  of  distilled  water  to  this  solution, 
cool  and  titrate,  as  above,  against  distilled  water  having  a 
known  content  of  nitric  acid.  Dilute  the  indigo  solution  so 
that  6  to  8  cc.  correspond  to  o.ooi  gram  nitric  anhydride 
(NaOs).  Should  the  water  contain  more  than  0.003  to  0.004 
gram  of  NjOs  in  25  cc.  as  indicated  by  the  preliminary 
titration,  it  should  be  diluted  to  apprpximately  this  content 
before  the  final  titration. 


ANALYSIS   AND   PURIFICATION   OF  WATER.      169 

It  requires  a  great  deal  of  practice  for  accurate  work  by 
this  method,  and  in  the  presence  of  much  organic  matter 
the  results  are  too  low. 

Chlorine. — If  much  chlorine  be  present,  as  indicated  by 
a  considerable  precipitate,  on  the  addition  of  nitrate  of 
silver  solution  to  the  water,  in  the  presence  of  nitric  acid, 
proceed  as  follows:  Concentrate  a  convenient  volume  of 
the  water,  e.g.,  loo  cc.  to  a  small  volume,  and  add  2  cc.  of 
pure  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  a  solution  of  nitrate  of 
silver  in  slight  excess.  Heat  to  the  boiling-point  and 
maintain  this  temperature  a  short  time,  avoiding  violent 
ebullition.  Stir  during  the  heating  to  collect  the  precipi- 
tate, chloride  of  silver,  in  a  granular  form.  Wash  the 
chloride,  by  decantation  with  200  cc.  hot  water  contain- 
ing 8  cc.  of  concentrated  nitric  acid  and  2  cc.  of  a  i  per 
cent  nitrate  of  silver  solution.  Pass  the  decanted  solutions 
through  a  tared  Gooch  filter.'  Use  small  portions  of  the 
washing  solution  at  a  time  and  break  up  the  lumps  of 
silver  chloride  with  a  glass  rod.  A  filter-pump  is  used  in 
making  the  filtration.  The  arrangement  shown  in  Fig.  49 
is  a  convenient  one  for  this  purpose.  On  the  completion 
of  this  washing  remove  the  filtrate  and  filter  it  a  second 
time  through  the  Gooch  filter,  rinsing  the  vessel  with  cold 
water.  Wash  the  precipitate  by  decantation  as  before, 
except  using  about  100  cc.  cold  water,  and  finally  transfer 
it  to  the  filter  and  wash  with  100  cc.  cold  water.  After 
washing,  pass  a  few  cubic  centimetres  of  strong  alcohol 
through  the  precipitate  and  dry  it  at  a  temperature  between 
140°  and  150"  C.  for  30  minutes  ;  cool  and  weigh.  The 
weight  of  the  silver  chloride  X  .24726  =  the  weight  of 
chlorine  in  the  quantity  of  water  used. 

Hardness. — The  hardness  is  determined  by  Clark's  soap 
method  and  is  expressed  in  terms  of  the  volume  of  a 
standard  soap  solution  required  to  form  a  permanent 
lather  with  a  given  volume  of  the  water.  The  soap  solu- 
tion is  prepared  as  indicated  in  18G. 

Measure  50  cc.  of  the  water  into  a  glass-stoppered  flask 


»  A  platinum  crucible,  with  perforated  bottom,  which  supports  a  filter- 
ing film  of  asbestos. 


170      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

of  250  cc.  capacity.  Shake  thoroughly,  then  remove  any 
carbonic  acid  that  may  be  given  off  by  suction  with  a  glass 
tube.  Add  a  small  quantity  of  the  soap  solution,  not 
exceeding  i  cc,  and  shake  vigorously.  Repeat  the  addi- 
tions of  soap  solution  and  the  shaking  until  the  foam 
remains  unbroken  over  the  entire  surface  of  the  liquid 
during  five  minutes.  As  in  ordinary  titrations,  the  quan- 
tity of  the  standard  solution  added  must  be  gradually 
decreased  until,  at  the  last,  but  a  drop  or  two  are  added  at 
a  time.  Should  the  quantity  of  soap  solution  used  exceed 
16  cc,  less  water  should  be  taken  and  diluted  to  50  cc, 
with  cold,  recently  boiled  distiUpd  water.  The  calculation 
is  made  with  the  aid  of  the  following  table: 

TABLE  FOR  THE  CIRCULATION  OF  HARDNESS  OF  WATER. 
(Sutton.) 

(Parts  per  100,000,  using  50  cc.  of  water.) 


a 

d 

□ 

c 

a 

Q 

0 

"1 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

•  '•3 

■Z 

■§ 

'C 

-§ 

"1 

•c 

^"S 

•^ 

81 

R'o 

8l 

s| 

81- 

el 

§8 

sf 

§s 

3 

^m 

dS 

Om> 

^2 

5i 

6z 

^■^ 

Oct, 

u. 

0  :- 
.00 

a 

^^ 

d. 

& 

& 

^fe 

ft 

1 

■A 

.3 

a. 

A 

.9 

ft 

1 

.5 

0. 

11.05 

1 

ft 

1 

•' 

3.64 

7.29 

.1 

15.00 

.7 

'.% 

.16 

.4 

3.77 

6.0 

7.43 

.6 

11.20 

.2 

15.16 

.8 

.9 

.3-2 

.5 

3.90 

.1 

7.57 

.7 

11.35 

.3 

15.32 

.9 

1.0 

r     .48 

.6 

4.03 

.2 

7.71 

.8 

11.50 

.4 

15.48 

14.0 

.1 

.63 

4.16 

.3 

7.86 

.9 

11.6.'') 

.5 

15.63 

.1 

."i 

.79 

!8 

4.29 

.4 

8.00 

9.0 

11.80 

.6 

15.79 

.2 

.3 

.95 

.9 

4.43 

.5 

8.14; 

.1 

11.95 

7 

15.95 

.3 

.4 

1.11 

4.0 

4.57 

.6 

8.29 

.2 

12.11 

.8 

16.11 

.4 

.5 

1.27 

.1 

4.71 

.7 

8.48! 

.3 

12.26 

.9 

16.27 

.5 

.6 

1.43 

.2 

4.86 

.8 

8.57 

.4 

12.41 

12.0 

16.43 

.6 

1..56 

.3 

5.00 

.9 

8.71 

.6 

12.56 

.1 

16.59 

7 

!8 

1.69 

.4 

5.14 

7.0 

8.80 

.0 

12.71 

.2 

16.75 

'.8 

.9 

1.82 

.5 

5.29 

.1 

9.00 

12.8() 

.3 

16.90 

.9 

2.0 

1.95 

.6 

5.43 

.2 

9.14i 

is 

13.01 

.4 

17.06 

15.0 

.1 

2.08 

5.. 57 

!3 

9.29 

.& 

13.16 

5 

17.22 

.1 

2.2! 

is 

5.71 

.4 

9.43 

10.0 

13.31 

.6 

17.38 

.2 

'.I 

2.34 

.9 

5.86 

.5 

9.57; 

.1 

13.46 

.7 

17.54 

.3 

A 

2.47 

5.0 

6:00 

.6 

9.71! 

13.61 

.8 

17.70 

4 

.  ..5 

2.60 

.1 

-6.14 

^7 

9.86 

'.l 

13.70 

.9 

17.86 

.5 

.6 

2:73 

.2 

6.29 

'!'8 

10.00 

A 

13.91. 

,  13.0 

18.02 

.6 

2.86 

.3 

6.431 

9 

10.15 

.5 

14.06 

.1 

18.17 

.7 

!8 

2.99 

.4 

6.57 

8.0 

10.30 

.6 

14.21 

.2 

18.33 

.8 

.'9 

3.12 

-.•5 

6.71 

.1 

10.45 

7 

14.37 

.3 

18.49 

.9 

8.0 

3.25 

.6 

6.86 

.2 

10.60 

.8 

14.52 

.4 

18.65 

16.0 

.1 

3.38 

.7 

7.00 

.1 

10.75 

.9 

14.68 

.5 

18.81 

.2 

3.51 

.  -.8 

7  M 

A 

10.90 

no 

14.84 

.6 

18.97 

£1 


19.13 
19.29 
19.44 
J9.60 
19.76 
19.92 
20.08 
20.24 
20.40 
20.56 
20.71 
20.87 
21 .03 
21.19 
21.35 
21.51 
21.68 
21.85 
22.02 
22.18 
22.35 
22.52 
22.69 


ANALYSIS   AND    PURIFICATION   OF  WATER.      171 

The  permanent  and  temporary  hardness  of  waters  may 
be  determined  by  the  French  modification  of  the  Clarke 
soap  method,  as  described  on  page  lOO.  To  calculate  the 
hardness  in  parts  per  100,000,  as  calcium  carbonate  (CaCOa), 
i*ultiply  the  "  degrees  "  of  the  special  burette  by  1.03  since 
i*^  Corresponds  to  .0103  part  calcium  carbonate  per  1000  cc. 
of  water. 

The  presence  of  magnesia  is  indicated  by  the  formation 
of  a  peculiar  curd,  and  also  a  lather  which  disappears  on 
further  addition  of  soap  solution. 

Permanent  Hardness. — Boil  gently  for  thirty  minutes  a 
weighed  quantity  of  water  in  an  Erlenmeyer  flask.  Gool, 
and  add  sufficient  recently  boiled  distilled  water  to  compen- 
sate for  the  evaporation.  Filter  off  a  portion  of  this  w^ter, 
and  determine  the  hardness  as  before. 

Calcium^  Magnesia,  Iron,  Silica,  Sulphuric  Acid,  etc. — 
Evaporate  a  large  measured  volumeof  the  water  to  dryness 
and  determine  these  constituents  in  the  residue  as  5nd?- 
cated  in  the  methods  for  the  analysis  of  limestone. 

Netes  on  iVater-analysis. — The  results  of  water-analyses 
are  usually  stated  in  terms  of  grains  per  U.  S.  gallon,  parts 
per  100,000,  or  parts  per  1,000,000. 

157.  Purification  of  Water.— To  water  containing 
the  bicarbonates  of  calcium  and  magnesium,  add  milk  of 
lime  in  slight  excess  (Clark).  'The  normal  carbonates  are 
formetl  and  precipitated,  and  may  be  removed  by  sedimenta- 
tion or  filter-pressing.  If  the  water  be  exposed  to  the  a;ir,, 
the  excess  of  lime  is  quickly  precipitated  by  the  carbonic 
icid.  Lime-water  in  slight  €XG<rss  may  be  used  instead  of 
the  milk  of  lime.     The  following  is  the  equation  :  - 

"'       Ca  HaCGOsOa -f  CaOaH^  =  2CaC03 -|r  2HO2. 

The  magnesium  bicarbonate  is  decomposed  with  the  pro- 
duction of  the  hydroxide. 

Water  containing  sulphate  of  calcium  (gypsum)  may  be 
improved  by  treatment  with  sodium  carbonate  in  slightex- 
cess  according  to  the  following  equation  :  ^,,- 

CaSCi*  +  Na^COs  =  CaCOs  -h  l^a,,S04i  j„j  ^.^^ 


172       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

The  carbonate  of  lime  may  be  removed  by  filtration 
through  a  press  or  by  subsidence.  In  this  case  a  substance 
which  is  melassigenic  is  substituted  for  one  which  fouls  the 
heating-surfaces. 

Waters  containing  bicarbonates  of  calcium  and  mag- 
nesium, and  the  chlorides  and  sulphates  of  these  bases,  may 
be  improved  by  the  addition  of  milk  of  lime  or  lime-water 
and  caustic  soda.     Equations  : 

CaHa(C03)5  +  2NaOH  =  CaCOs  +  Na^COs  +  2H2O  ; 
CaS04  -f  NaaCOs  =  CaCOs  +  NajSO*. 

Other  calcium  and  magnesium  compounds  are  decom- 
posed by  this  treatment  with  the  formation  of  similar  com- 
pounds.    Silica  is  precipitated  by  this  process. 

Water  may  usually  be  improved,  especially  if  it  contain 
organic  impurities,  by  the  addition  of  traces  of  alum  or  of 
chloride  of  iron  and  filtration  through  sand,  or  coke  and 
sand,  as  in  the  Hyatt  process. 

The  economical  treatment  of  the  waste  waters  from  the 
sugar-houses,  especially  if  these  waters  must  be  returned 
to  a  very  small  stream,  presents  many  difficulties.  There 
is  a  tendency  on  the  part  of  public  officials  to  require  the 
purification  of  these  waters.  In  some  locations  where  the 
water-supply  is  deficient  it  is  an  object  to  purify  the  waste 
water  for  use  in  the  factory. 

The  water  from  the  condensers  of  the  multiple-effect 
and  vacuum-pans  may  be  sufficiently  cooled  and  purified 
for  use  again  by  means  of  a  "cooling-tower."  A  tower^ 
Buch  as  usually  is  constructed  in  Cuba  and  in  the  beet 
countries,  consists  of  a  framework  several  stories  in  height. 
The  framework,  at  each  story,  is  covered  with  willow 
branches.  The  entire  structure  is  often  30  feet  or  more 
in  height.  The  water  is  pumped  to  the  top  of  the  tower, 
and  then  drips  from  floor  to  floor,  and  is  finally  collected  in 
a  pond.  This  treatment  lowers  the  temperature  of  the 
water  and  improves  its  quality  by  oxidation  of  many  of  the 
impurities. 

The  simplest  disposition  of  the  waste  waters  from  the 
beet-washers,  diffusion-battery,  and  pulp-presses  is  their 
use  for  irrigation.     They  should  be  distributed  over  very 


ANALYSIS   AN^D    PURIFICATION   OF   WATER.      173 

large  areas.  The  organic  matters  are  oxidized,  and  such 
water  as  finally  reaches  the  streams,  through  drainage,  is 
sufficiently  pure. 

Where  very  large  areas  are  available  for  settling  and  de- 
cantation,  the  waste  water  may  be  improved  by  treatment 
with  lime  or  with  lime  and  an  iron  salt.  The  sediment  is 
removed  from  time  to  time  and  distributed  over  the  fields. 


174       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


SEED-SELECTION. 

CHEMICAL  METHODS  AND    APPARATUS. 

158.  General  Remarks.— It  is  not  in  the  province 
of  this  book  to  deal  with  the  methods  of  seed-selection,  ex- 
cept with  a  view  to  the  chemical  manipulations  involved. 
It  is  nevertheless  necessary  that  some  of  the  principles 
upon  which  such  selection  is  based  should  be  mentioned, 
that  the  chemist  may  have  a  clear  understanding  of  the  pur- 
poses of  his  work  and  go  about  it  intelligently. 

As  is  true  with  many  plants,  a  beet  may  be  produced 
having  certain  features  which  persist  through  many  gen- 
erations and  which  may  be  said  to  have  been  inherited  from 
its  ancestors.  The  continued  selection  of  individuals, 
grown  under  normal  conditions  and  having  certain  pecu- 
liarities, generation  after  generation,  tends  to  fix  these 
distinctive  features,  and  a  "race,"  as  it  may  be  termed, 
is  developed  in  which  the  majority  of  the  individuals 
inherit  the  race-characteristics.  Since  the  only  reason  for 
the  improvement  of  the  beet  is  a  commercial  one,  it  is  es- 
sential that  the  plants  for  the  production  of  the  seed  be 
grown  under  commercial  conditions,  that  their  progeny  may 
have  the  same  qualities,  in  field-culture. 

Since  the  good  qualities  of  a  race  may  be  developed  by 
selection,  one  naturally  assumes  that  the  opposite  qualities 
may  be  developed;  hence  in  the  selection  of  "  beet-mothers" 
those  roots  are  chosen  in  which  the  valuable  features  are 
predominant. 

Some  varieties  have  a  tendency  to  run  to  seed,  to  pro- 
duce fibrous  roots,  to  deteriorate  early  in  the  silos,  or  have 
other  bad  qualities  ;  others  have  a  tendency  to  the  produc- 
tion of  roots  containing  a  rich,  pure  juice  and  a  satisfactory 
tonnage  per  acre.      Experience  has  demonstrated  that  these 


SEED-SELECTION.  175 

tendencies  may  be  fixed,  to  a  great  extent,  by  a  rigid  system 
of  selection,  and  that  seed  may  be  grown  that  will  produce 
roots  true  to  the  characteristics  of  the  parent. 

It  is  desirable  for  the  beet  to  have  a  certain  shape,  that  it 
may  be  easily  "  lifted  "  in  harvesting  ;  it  should  be  as  free 
as  possible  from  side  roots,  since  such  beets  are  usually 
deficient  in  sugar  and  are  difficult  to  free  from  adhering 
earth  in  the  washers  ;  the  root  should  be  firm,  and  dense, 
and  contain  a  high  percentage  of  sugar  in  a  juice  of  great 
purity.  Relative  productiveness  and  keeping  qualities  are 
also  considered  in  the  selection  of  beets. 

It  should  not  be  assumed  that  all  seed-growers  adopt  the 
same  methods  of  selection.  Some  select  a  rather  large  beet, 
others,  a  small  one.  On  some  farms  the  beets  are  planted 
very  closely  together,  on  others  they  are  well  separated  to 
give  the  plant  plenty  of  light  and  air. 

The  following  is  a  brief  outline  of  the  methods  adopted 
by  the  majority  of  seed-growers  :  The  beets,  when  ripe,  are 
carefully  "lifted"  from  the  soil ;  those  roots  which  show 
imperfections  in  their  development  and  are  too  large  or 
too  small,  are  thrown  aside  and  sent  to  the  sugar-factory  ; 
those  of  satisfactory  shape  and  size  are  placed  in  piles  and 
covered  with  earth  to  protect  them  from  frost,  until  the  time 
for  siloing  them.  In  the  early  spring,  the  beets  are  taken 
from  the  silos  preparatory  to  removal  to  the  laboratory  for 
analysis. 

The  roots  are  again  sorted,  and  those  which  have  kept 
imperfectly,  or  for  other  reasons  are  not  suitable,  are 
rejected.  The  sound  beets  which  fill  the  necessary  physical 
requirements  are  now  taken  to  the  laboratory  and  a  small 
cylinder  or  a  portion  of  pulp  is  removed  from  each  for 
analysis.  Those  beets  which  contain  the  desired  per- 
centage of  sugar  are  stored  for  planting  at  the  proper 
season,  and  the  others  are  discarded. 

In  general,  the  percentage  of  sugar  in  the  beet  is  inversely 
proportional  to  the  size  of  the  root.  The  small  beets  of 
regular  shape  are  usually  rich  in  sugar.  Typical  sugar- 
beets  are  shown  in  Figs.  57  and  58.  Vilmorin's  white  im- 
proved (Fig.  57)  and  the  Kleinwanzlebener  (Fig.  58)  are 
favorite  varieties  abroad  and  in  this  country. 


176       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGA  R-lIOL'SE   CHEMISTI 


Fig.  58. 


SEED-SELECTIOK. 


177 


159.  Distribution  of  the  Sugar  in  the  Beet. 

— The  sugar  is  not  uniformly  distributed  throughout  the 
beet.  It  varies  materially  in  different  parts  of  the  root  as 
is  shown  in  the  diagrams,  Figs.  59,  60,  and  61,  after  Slassky.* 


Fig.  60. 


Fig.  61. 


In  view  of  this  unequal  distribution,  care  is  necessary  in 
removing  the  sample  that  the  analyses  may  be  comparable 
with  one  another. 

160.  Methods  of  Removing  the  Sample  for 
Analysis. — The  dotted  lines,  inclined  from  right  to  left, 
in  Figs.  59,  60,  and  61,  indicate  the  usual  direction  taken  by 
the  sound  in  removing  the  sample.  Slassky  ^  punctured 
a  number  of  beets  and  analyzed  the  cylinders,  and  after- 
wards the  entire  beet,  with  the  following  results  :  Sucrose 


'  Zapiski^  1893,  13;  abstract  in  Bulletin  deV Association  desChemistesde 
France.,  1/8,  277. 

"  op.  et  loc,  cit.,  supra. 


178       HAN^DBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

in  the  juice  of  the  entire  beet,  16.4  percent  ;  sucrose  in  the 
juice  from  the  cylinders,  16.76  per  cent,  a  difference  of  0.36 
per  cent.  It  is  not  so  important  in  seed-selection  that  the 
analysis  represent  the  mean  sucrose  content  of  the  beet  as 
that  the  analyses  shall  be  comparable  with  one  another. 

The  present  methods  of  sampling  and  analysis  in  seed- 
selection  are  very  largely  the  results  of  Pellet's  experi- 
ments and  suggestions.  The  direct  methods  of  analysis, 
devised  by  this  eminent  expert,  permit  rapid  work  with  a 
very  satisfactory  degree  of  accuracy. 

Lindeboom's  Sound,  as  improved  by  Gallois  and  Dupont, 
Paris,  is  shown  in  Fig.  62.  The  diagram,  Fig.  18,  shows 
the  proper  position  of  the  beet,  when  using  the  sound. 
The  improvement   of  Gallois  and   Dupont  consists  in  im- 


FlG.  62. 


parting  a  rotary  motion  to  the  sound,  insuring  a  clean  cut, 
which  is  necessary  to  the  further  preservation  of  the  "  beet- 
mother."  The  cylinder  which  remains  slightly  projecting 
from  the  beet  is  prepared  for  analysis  by  one  of  the 
methods  described  later. 

Boring-rasp  {Keil  <f  Dolle). — This   machine  differs  from 


± 


SEED-SELECTIOJ^.  179 

that  shown  in  Fig.  19  only  in  the  method  of  removing  the 
pulp.  The  rasps  of  the  two  machines  are  interchangeable, 
thus  making  but  one  machine  necessary  for  both  classes  of 
work. 

The  rasp,  as  shown  in  Fig.  63,  is  provided  v.'ith  a  rod, 
carrying  a  disk  which 
fits  snugly  inside  the 
tool.  The  method  of 
fastening  the  rasp  to 
the   body  of    the  tool  Fig.  63. 

is  the  same  in  both  machines. 

The  pulp  passes  through  the  opening  shown  in  Fig.  20, 
and  is  held  by  the  disk.  The  machine  is  stopped,  the  rasp 
unfastened,  and  the  pulp  withdrawn  by  nfteans  of  the  rod 
and  disk.  Except  in  very  careful  work,  it  is  not  necessary 
to  wash  the  apparatus  after  each  perforation.  Each  sample 
pushes  any  remaining  portion  of  its  predecessor  against 
the  disk,  where  it  is  usually  wiell  defined  by  slight  differ- 
ences in  appearance.  The  rejection  of  about  one-fifth  of 
the  cylinder  of  pulp  insures  the  removal  of  all  portions  of 
the  preceding  sample. 

161.  Analysis  of  the  Sample. — The  pulp  may  be 
analyzed  by  any  of  the  direct  methods,  or  by  the  indirect 
method,  i.e.,  analysis  of  the  expressed  juice  and  calcula- 
tion to  terms  of  the  weight  of  the  beet.  The  cylinder  may 
be  reduced  to  a  pulp  in  Hanriot's  apparatus,  or  in  the 
cylindro-divider  (Fig.  36),  and  analyzed  by  the  instantane- 
ous-diffusion  method.  The  cylinder  may  also  be  rasped 
and  the  juice  expressed  for  analysis,  if  desired.  The  direct 
methods  require  so  little  time  and  labor,  and  so  excel  in 
accuracy,  that  it  is  advised  that  one  of  them  be  used, 
preferably  the  instantaneous-diffusion  method. 

In  using  Hanriot's  apparatus  (Fig.  64),  one  fourth  the 
normal  weight  (6.512  grams  or  4.075  grams)  is  cut  from  the 
cylinder  and  placed  in  the  feed-tube  of  the  apparatus  ;  the 
lever  L  is  depressed,  and  the  sample  is  forced  against 
the  rasp,  which  is  driven  at  2,000  revolutions^  and  is  reduced 
to  a  fine  pulp.  The  rubber  bulb  F  contains  about  80  cc.  of 
water,  with  which  the  pulp  is  washed  into  the  sugar-flask. 
The  volume  of  this  flask  should  be   sufl5cient  to  allow   for 


180       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

the  volume  of  the  marc,  as  explained  in  04,  i.e.,  for  the 
one  fourth  normal  weight  (6.512  grams),  50.3  cc.  The  flask 
is  removed,  and  the  analysis  is  completed  by   Pellet's  in- 


FlG,   64 

■tantaneous-diffusion  method,  62.  A  400-mm.  Pellet  con- 
tinuous tube  should  be  used  in  making  the  polarization. 
The  polariscope  reading  must  be  multiplied  by  2  to  obtain 
the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  beet.  The  apparatus  is  ready 
for  a  second  polarization  without  further  washing. 

Pellet  and  Hanriot  have  further  improved  this  method  of 
analysis,  as  regards  speed,  by  the  use  of  a  two-bladed  knife 


SEED-SELECTION". 


181 


for  cutting  the  required  weight  of  material  from  th# 
cylinder.  This  knife  has  parallel  adjustable  blades,  and 
removes  the  required  weight  with  sufficient  accuracy  foi 
seed-selection,  thus  doing  away  with  the  use  of  a  balance. 

The  knife  should  be  adjusted  to  cut  a  cylinder  of  thtf 
required  weight  from  a  beet  of  average  density  (1.038)  ;  a 
few  trials  will  soon  effect  this  adjustment.  In  an  experi' 
ment  made  by  Pellet,  sixteen  cylinders  were  cut ;  the  dif* 
ference  between  the  extreme  weights  was  0.15  gram,  cor' 
responding  to  a  difference  of  0.35  per  cent  sucrose  in  a  beet 
containing  15  per  cent  sucrose,  and  a  mean  error  of  0.15  to 
0.2  per  cent.  These  results  are  sufficiently  accurate  for  the 
purpose. 

The  cylinder  is  placed  upon  a  grooved  block  when  using 
the  knife,  and  should  not  be  washed  or  otherwise  treated 
before  placing  it  in  the  Hanriot  apparatus. 

Modification  of  Pellet's  Direct  Method, — Fr.  Sachs '  and 


Fig.  65. 

A.  Le  Docte  of  Brussels,  acting  upon  the  suggestions 
in  the  published  experiments  of  a  number  of  chemists, 
have  very  materially  improved  Pellet's  diffusion  method,  as 


Paper  read  before  Congris  Internationale  de  Chimie  Appliqu^e^  Paris, 


1896. 


182       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


follows  :  The  normal  weight  (26.048  grams)  of  the  finely 
rasped  pulp  is  weighed  directly  in  the 
planished  copper  capsule,  shown  in  Fig. 
65,  the  bottom  of  which  is  flat,  and  the 
corners  rounded. 

The  capsule  containing  the  pulp  is  held 
under  the  overflow  pipette  D  (Fig.  66)  ;  a 
quarter-turn  of  the  stop-cock  K  admits 
subacetate  of  lead  solution  from  the  reser- 
voir through  B  to  the  pipette  ;  when 
this  reaches  the  5-cc.  mark,  a  further 
quarter-turn  admits  water  through  the 
tube  C  ;  the  instant  the  water  overflows 
aX  H  2i  further  quarter-turn  is  given  the 
stop-cock,  and  the  accurately  measured 
contents  of  the  pipette  are  discharged 
into  the  capsule.  The  capsule  is  then 
covered  with  a  glass  disk  enclosed  in 
a  rubber  cap,  and  is  held  as  shown  in 
Fig.  65,  and  agitated  vigorously.  The 
sugar  is  uniformly  distributed  throughout 
the  solution  within  three  minutes.  The 
disk  is  smeared  with  vaseline  previous 
to  placing  it  upon  the  capsule.  In  re- 
moving the  cover,  it  should  be  slipped 
to  one  side,  not  lifted,  thus  leaving  it  in  readiness  for 
another  determination.  Filter  and  polarize  the  solution. 
When  using  a  400-mm.  observation-tube,  the  polariscope 
reading  is  the  per  cent  of  sucrose  in  the  beet. 

The  above  method  is  applicable  when  the  normal  weight 
of  pulp  can  be  obtained.  To  be  applicable  in  the  analysis 
of  mother  beets,  the  one-fourth  normal  weight  of  pulp, 
6.512  grams,  should  be  used,  with  a  pipette  graduated  to 
deliver  44.25  cc. 

A  convenient  modification  of  this  method,  and  applicable 
in  all  cases,  is  the  following  :  Weigh  a  quantity  of  pulp  in  a 
Sachs-Le  Docte  capsule  and  for  each  gram  of  pulp  add  6.8 
cc.  of  a  subacetate  of  lead  solution  prepared  by  diluting 
30  cc.  of  54.3°  Brix  subacetate  solution  (207)  to  i  litre. 
Proceed  as  in  the  Sachs-Le  Docte  method.  For  the  Laurent 
instrument,  normal  weight  16.29  grams,  5.29  cc.  of  the  sub- 
acetate solution  should  be  added  per  gram  of  pulp.     This 


Fig.  66. 


SEED-SELECTION.  183 

irrcsponds  to  the  normal  weight  in  loocc,  corrected  for 

llume  of  the  marc  and  lead  precipitate. 
*ellet  advises  acidulating  the  filtrates  before  polarization 

Ith  acetic  acid. 

An  ordinary  automatic  or  overflow  pipette  with  a  three- 
ray  cock  can  be  used  if  the  solution  be  prepared  as  indi- 
cated above.  These  pipettes  deliver  the  specified  volume 
of  liquid  with  accuracy  and  rapidity.  The  Sachs-LeDocte 
modification  reduces  the  possible  errors  in  Pellet's  method 
to  a  minimum,  and  permits  extremely  rapid  work. 

102.  Pellet's  Continuous  Tube  for  Polariza- 
tions.— One  of  the  most  important  improvements  that  has 
been  made  in  several  years  in  polariscopic  apparatus  is 
Pellet's  continuous  observation-tube.  This  tube  permits  the 
rapid  polarization  of  solutions  without  its  removal  from  the 
instrument, each  solution  being  displaced  bythat  followingit. 

The  first  descriptions  of  this  tube  which  came  into  the 
author's  hands  were  very  meagre,  and  a  number  of  ex- 
periments were  made  before  a  satisfactory  tube  was  con- 
structed. These  experiments  were  not  made  with  a  view 
to  improving  the  construction  of  the  tube  as  made  for 
Pellet,  but  to  construct  a  tube  for  immediate  use.  The 
displacement  of  the  solutions  was  studied  by  means  of 
colored  liquids  in  a  tube  having  brass  heads  and  a  glass 
body.     The  form  shown  in  Fig.  67  was  finally  accepted  as 


Fig.  67. 

in  every  way  satisfactory.  The  funnel  delivers  the  solu- 
tion into  an  annular  canal,  which  connects  by  separate 
openings  with  each  of  the  four  grooves  shown  at  the  end 
of  the  tube.  This  arrangement  insures  the  equal  distribu- 
tion of  the  displacing  solution.  At  the  opposite  end  the 
construction  is  the  same,  except  that  an  outlet-tube  carries 
off  the  waste  solution. 


184       HAKDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

In  very  rapid  work,  Pellet  substitutes  a  siphon-tube  for 
the  funnel.  While  the  chemist  is  making  an  observation 
the  assistant  dips  the  inlet-tube  into  the  fresh  solution 
ready  for  the  next  polarization.  The  opening  of  a  pinch- 
cock  permits  the  old  solution  to  flow  out  and  the  fresh  one 
to  take  its  place.  Owing  to  differences  in  the  density  of 
the  two  solutions,  striae  form  where  they  come  in  contact 
with  one  another,  rendering  it  impossible  to  make  a  clear 
observation  so  long  as  any  of  the  old  solution  remains  in 
the  tube.  When  the  day's  work  is  finished  the  last  solu- 
tion should  be  displaced  with  pure  water,  and  the  tube 
should  be  left  filled  with  water  ready  for  the  next  day's  work. 

There  is  usually  some  difficulty  in  filling  the  tube  the  first 
time  on  account  of  air-bubbles.  This  difficulty  may  be 
overcome  by  passing  a  strong  current  of  water  from  the 
hydrant  through  the  tube,  until  the  bubbles  are  removed. 

The  author  has  tested  this  apparatus  with  a  great  variety 
of  solutions,  many  varying  but  slightly  in  density  from  one 
another,  and  has  always  obtained  identical  results  with  the 
Pellet  and  ordinary  tubes. 

The  Pellet  tube  permits  extremely  rapid  work.  An  ex- 
pert observer,  using  a  good  half-shadow  polariscope,  can 
easily  make  500  polarizations  per  hour.  This  number  may 
even  be  increased  under  favorable  conditions.  An  assist- 
ant makes  the  entries  in  the  note-book. 

Pellet  advises  that  the  diameter  of  all  continuous  tubes 
should  be  5  millimetres,  thus  reducing  the  quantity  of  the 
solution  required  for  displacement  to  a  small  volume. 

163.  Polariscope  with  Enlarg-ecl  Scale.  — 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  make  a  polariscope  especially  for  use 
in  seed-selection  (Fig.  68).  The  instrument  is  of  simple 
construction,  and  is  well  adapted  to  the  purpose.  The 
scale  is  graduated  from  o  to  35  per  cent. 

The  enlarged  scale,  by  the  same  makers,  shown  in 
Fig.  69,  is  exceedingly  convenient  for  this  class  of  work. 
The  percentages  may  be  easily  read  to  tenths  at  a  distance 
from  the  instrument,  thus  enabling  an  assistant  to  relieve 
the  observer  of  this  portion  of  the  work. 

Hanriot  has  arranged  a  system  of  electric  bells  which  are 
rung  by  turning  the  milled  screw  of  the  polariscope.  If  the 
sample  be  of  a  certain  richness,  a  bell  rings  automatically. 


SEED-SELECTION. 


185 


1 64.  Pellet's  Estimate  of  the  Laboratory  Ap- 
paratus and  Personnel  Required  for  a  Seed- 
farm. — The  following  estimate  is  based  upon  the  analysis 
of  2500  to  3000  beet-mothers  per  day  of  10  hours: 


I  boring-rasp  ; 

I  motor  (gas,  electric,  etc.); 

I  polariscope  ; 
aoo  capsules,  numbered,  for  pulp  ; 

4  balances  ; 

8  nickel  weighing  capsules  ; 

4  i-normal  weights  ; 

4  nickel  funnels  ; 

4  wash-bottles  or  one  large  bottle  with  4  tubes  { 
500  50-CC.-55-CC.  sugar-flasks  ; 


186       HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


500  funnels  ; 

500  test-glasses  for  filtered  solutions  (see  Fig.  70) ; 
200  numbered  clamps,  for  numbering  sugar-flasks  ana  test- 
glasses  ; 


Fig.  69. 

1  polariscope  (half-shadow)  ; 

2  continuous  polariscope-tubes,  400  mm.  each  ; 

3  baskets  divided  into  compartments  for  carrying  solu- 

tions to  the  polariscope  ; 

6  dropping-glasses  for  ether  ; 

6  dropping-glasses  for  acetic 
acid. 

The  Sachs  LeDocte  apparatus 
may  be  conveniently  substi?:uted 
for  the  sugar  flasks  (see  page  181) 
and      the     filtering     arrangement 


Fig.  70 


Fig.  71. 


shown   in   Fig.  70,   for  the  funnel-racks.      The  numbered 


SEED-SELECTION".  187 

clamps  (Fig.  71)  are  made  of  copper  or  brass,  and  are 
transferred  from  the  sugar-glass  to  the  test-glass  after 
filtration. 

The  personnel  varies  with  the  convenience  of  the  labora- 
tory arrangements.  Exclusive  of  employes  who  sort  and 
carry  the  beets  to  the  laboratory,  the  following  are  usually 
necessary  with  the  above  equipment  : 

t  laborer  at  the  rasp  ; 

I  assistant  to  arrange  the  samples  in  order  ; 

I  assistant  to  rasp  the  beets  ; 

1  laborer  to  distribute  the  capsules  of  pulp  to  the  balances  ; 
4  weighers  at  the  balances  ; 

4  assistants  to  transfer  the  pulp  to  the  flasks  ; 
4  assistants  to  clarify  the  solutions  and  complete  the  vol- 
ume to  the  mark  on  the  flasks  ; 

2  assistants  for  filtrations  ; 
2  observers  (polariscopic); 
2  assistant  observers  ; 

2  charwomen. 

When  using  the  Hanriot  apparatus  and  Pellet's  double- 
bladed  knife,  the  number  of  laborers  is  much  smaller  for  a 
given  amount  of  work,  and  3  balances,  etc.,  may  be  dis- 
pensed with.  The  following  is  the  personnel  with  this 
method  for  making  4000  to  5000  analyses  per  day: 

I  laborer  at  the  sound  (Lindeboom)  ; 

I  " sounder "; 

1  cutter  ; 

2  laborers  at  the  rasps; 

2  laborers  to  carry  the  cylinders,  cut  from  the  beets,  to 
the  rasps  ; 

2  assistants  to  clarify,  etc.,  the  solutions  ; 

2  assistants  for  filtrations  ; 

2  observers ; 

2  assistant  observers  ; 

2  charwomen. 

With  this  method,  seventeen  employes  can  accomplish 
nearly  double  the  number  of  analyses  that  twenty-one  can 
with  the  borer-rasp  and  balances. 

165.  Chemical  Method  for  the  Analysis  of 
teet-lliothers. — The   chemical    method    of   analysis  of 


188      HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

beet-mothers  is  used  in  a  number  of  laboratories.  This 
application  of  the  alkaline-copper  method  is  due  to  Vio- 
lette.  The  process  is  very  simple,  and  is  well  adapted  to 
seed-farms  of  moderate  size  which  would  not  justify  the 
outlay  for  the  expensive  apparatus  described  in  the  preced- 
ing pages. 

Cut  a  small  cylinder  from  the  beet  with  a  sound  (Fig.  62), 
or  on  a  small  scale  with  a  cork-borer  ;  remove  the  skin  and 
rapidly  cut  the  cylinder  into  small  fragments.  Transfer  5 
grams  of  the  fragments  to  a  loo-cc.  sugar-flask,  add  ap- 
proximately 40  cc.  water  and  10  cc.  normal  sulphuric  acid 
(199),  mix,  and  heat  upon  a  water-bath,  at  the  boiling-point, 
cool,  add  10  cc.  of  a  normal  solution  of  caustic  soda  (201 ), 
to  neutralize  the  solution  and  complete  the  volume  to  100  cc. 
The  sucrose  is  inverted  by  the  acid  treatment  and  converted 
into  invert-sugar.  Determine  the  percentage  of  invert- 
sugar  by  Violette's  method  given  in  73.  Multiply  the 
percentage  of  invert-sugar  by  .95  to  obtain  the  percentage 
of  sucrose.  In  seed-selection,  it  is  unnecessary  to  determine 
the  sucrose  with  great  accuracy,  hence  the  analyst  may  be 
guided  entirely  by  the  disappearance  of  the  blue  color,  in- 
stead of  using  a  test  solution  to  ascertain  the  end  of  the 
reaction. 

In  this  work  the  burette  readings  will  vary  between  5  and 
8  cc.  If,  for  example,  the  beets  are  to  be  divided  into  three 
classes,  viz.,  (i)  those  containing  15  per  cent  or  more  of 
sucrose,  (2)  those  containing  between  13  and  15  per  cent, 
and  (3)  those  containing  less  than  13  percent,  the  following  is 
a  convenient  method  of  procedure:  Heat  rocc.  of  Violette's 
solution  (195)  in  a  test-tube  to  boiling,  add  6.3  cc.  of  the 
invert-sugar  solution,  and  boil  ;  a  complete  disappearance 
of  the  blue  color  shows  that  the  beet  contains  more  than  15 
per  cent  of  sucrose;  if  the  blue  color  persist,  continue  the 
addition  to  7.3  cc.  and  boil  ;  a  disappearance  of  the  blue 
color  shows  that  the  beet  contains  13  per  cent  sucrose,  or 
more,  and  less  than  15  per  cent  ;  if  the  blue  color  persist, 
the  percentage  is  below  13.  The  following  table  may  be 
conveniently  used  in  calculating  the  percentages  : 


SEED-SELECTION. 


189 


Burette 

Per  Cent 

Burette 

Per  Cent 

Burette 

Percent 

Readiug. 

Sucrose. 

Reading. 

Sucrose. 

Reading. 

Sucrose. 

5.0 

19.0 

6.0 

15.8 

7.0 

13.6 

.1 

18.6 

.1 

15.6 

.1 

13.4 

.2 

18.3 

.2 

15.3 

.2 

13.2 

.8 

17.9 

.8 

15.1 

.3 

13.0 

.4 

17.6 

.4 

14.8 

.4 

12.8 

.5 

17.3 

.5 

14.6 

.5 

12.7 

.6 

17.0 

.6 

14.4 

.6 

12.5 

.7 

16.7 

.7 

14.2 

.7 

12.3 

.8 

16.4 

.8 

14.0 

.8 

12.2 

.9 

16.1 

.9 

13.7 

.9 

12.0 

In  the  application  of  this  method  upon  a  large  scale 
a  number  of  labor-saving  devices  may  be  used  with 
advantage  :  A  large  sand-bath  or  a  hot  plate  may  be  used 
in  making  the  inversions.  The  alkaline-copper  solution, 
preferably  Violette's  modification  (195),  and  the  sul- 
phuric-acid and  soda,  are  most  conveniently  measured 
from  automatic  pipettes  (Fig.  72).  The  pipette  for  the 
Violette  reagent  should  be  graduated  with  that 
solution,  and  not  with  water.  This  is  necessary  on 
account  of  the  viscosity  of  the  reagent.  The  so- 
lutions may  be  measured  with  great  rapidity  and 
accuracy  with  this  pipette.  Several  burettes 
should  be  arranged  in  a  rack  over  a  correspond- 
ing rack  holding  the  large  test-tubes  containing 
the  copper  solution.  These  latter  are  heated  by 
an  easily  adjustable  multiple-burner  lamp,  Lecq ' 
uses  a  revolving  rack  having  four  arms,  each 
carrying  five  burettes  and  five  test-tubes.  An  arm 
of  the  rack  is  revolved  to  a  position  over  the  lamp, 
and  the  contents  of  the  tubes  are  heated ,  the  sugar 
solutions  are  added  and  heated  to  boiling,  and 
then  a  second  arm  is  brought  into  position.  By 
the  time  a  complete  revolution  is  made,  the  sub-  Fig.  72. 
oxide  of  copper  in  the  first  set  of  tubes  will  have  settled,  and 
the  color  of  the  supernatant  liquid  may  be  noted  with  ease. 

Much  labor  may  be  economized  by  the  use  of  a  boring- 
rasp,  Fig.  19,  for  removing  the  sample  from  the  beet. 

*  Aim^  Girard  ia  Journal  des  Fabricants  de  Sucre,  1883,  xo. 


190      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


SEED-TESTING. 


166.  Beet-seed. — The  "seed"  of  the  beet,  as  it  Is 
commonly  termed,  is,  properly  speaking,  the  fruit  of  the 
plant,  and  is  usually  called  the  '•  seed-ball"  by  seedsmen. 
Each  ball  contains  from  one  to  five  embryos.  For  brevity, 
the  expression  "  ball  "  or  "  seed  "  will  be  used. 

167.  Saniplillg-.— The  seed  should  be  sampled  with  a 
trier  or  sound,  similar  to  that  shown  in  Fig.  23,  designed 
for  use  with  sugars.  The  trier  for  seed-sampling  should 
be  provided  with  a  cover,  which  may  be  revolved  into  po- 
sition before  removing  the  instrument  from  the  sack  of 
seed,  and  thus  retain  the  entire  sample.  A  quantity  of  seed 
should  be  drawn  systematically  from  the  lot,  removing  a 
portion  from  each  sack,  or  from  every  second  sack,  etc., 
according  to  the  amount  of  seed  to  be  sampled. 

The  large  sample  should  be  thoroughly  mixed,  distribut- 
ing the  impurities  through  the  seed  as  uniformly  as  pos- 
sible A  convenient  method  of  subsampling  is  that  of 
Maercker,  of  the  experiment  station  Halle/a/Saale,  Ger- 
many, as  follows  :  Cut  a  disk  of  cardboard  to  fit  easily 
inside  of  a  crystallizing-dish.  The  dish  should  have  verti- 
cal walls  and  a  fiat  bottom.  Cut  slots  A,  A,  A,  A,  as 
shown  in  Fig.  73,  in  the  cardboard,  and  place  it  on  the  bot- 
tom of  the  dish.  Two  wires  should 
be  attached  to  the  disk,  to  lift 
it  vertically  from  the  dish  without 
jarring.  Cover  the  disk  to  a  uni- 
form depth  with  the  sample  of  seed, 
then  lift  it  by  means  of  the  wires  ; 
the  required  subsample  will  pass 
through  the  slots  and  remain  in  the 
dish.  A  few  experiments  will  deter- 
mine convenient  shape  and  dimcn- 


FlG.    73. 

sions  for  the  slots 


Should  an  experiment  require  less  seed 


SEED-TESTING.  191 

than  it  is  convenient  to  remove  in  this  way,  further  reduce 
the  Quantity  by  quartering. 

108.  Moisture. — Dry  an  entire  subsample,  removed 
as  above  described,  and  containing  approximately  lo  grams. 
The  balls  should  be  distributed  evenly  in  a  large  flat  dish 
and  dried  in  an  oven  at  105°  C.  The  loss  in  weight  -f- 
weight  of  the  sample  X  100  =  percentage  of  moisture.  Care 
must  be  observed  in  cooling  and  weighing  the  dry  seed, 
since  it  quickly  absorbs  moisture  from  the  air. 

169.  Proportion  of  Clean  Seed. — It  is  difficult  to 
determine  the  proportion  of  clean  seed,  largely  through 
difficulty  in  distributing  the  impurities  and  in  removing 
tne  foreign  matters. 

Remove  approximately  to  grams  of  seed  from  the  large 
sample,  as  described  in  167;  weigh,  and  transfer  to  a  sheet 
of  paper.  Hold  each  seed  in  a  pair  of  forceps,  brush  care- 
fully, and  remove  foreign  matter.  Weigh  the  clean  seed; 
this  weight  divided  by  the  gross  weight  and  multiplied  by 
100  is  the  percentage  of  clean  seed.  This  determination 
should  be  made  in  duplicate  or  triplicate,  since  it  is  difficult 
to  obtain  concordant  results. 

170.  Number  of  Seeds  per  Pound  or  Kilo- 
gram.— Beet-seed  is  sold  by  the  pound  or  ton  in  this  coun- 
try. It  is,  however,  more  convenient  to  make  the  calcula- 
tions on  a  metric  basis  and  afterwards  reduce  them  to  the 
customary  weights. 

In  the  determining  the  proportion  of  clean  seed  (169) 
lime  may  be  economized  by  counting  the  balls  into  the 
weighing-capsule.  The  number  of  seeds  per  10  grams  is 
r.hen  readily  calculated  to  terms  of  a  kilogram,  and  thence 
to  pounds  (220). 

The  seed  should  next  be  placed  in  a  sieve  of  y'^  inch 
square  mesh.  The  balls  which  pass  this  sieve  are  termed 
•'small,"  and  those  which  remain,  "large."  The  number 
of  large  seeds  and  small  seeds  per  kilogram  and  pound  is 
ralculated  as  before. 

r  This  is  a  purely  arbitrary  classification,  and  is  an  out- 
srrowth  of  the  various  opinions  of  authorities  relative  to  the 
value  of  large  and  small  seeds. 

It  is  generally  conceded  that  the  large,  heavy  balls  are  of 


192       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

greater  value  than  the  small  ones,  so  far  as  germinative 
power  is  concerned,  and  many  investigators  consider  that 
the  heavy  seed-balls  produce  more  thrifty  plants  and  beets 
richer  in  sugar.  It  has  also  been  observed  that  germina- 
tive ability  varies  directly  as  the  size  of  the  seed-balls. 
The  larger  the  percentage  of  small  or  medium-sized  balls, 
however,  the  larger  the  number  of  plants  that  will  be  pro- 
duced., and  the  more  evenly  the  rows  will  be  filled. 

As  in  other  experiments  with  beet-seed,  it  is  advisa- 
ble to  make  the  tests  in  duplicate  or  triplicate  and  report 
the  mean  of  the  results. 

171.  Germination  Test. — There  are  two  methods 
of  making  this  test,  viz.:  (i)  determination  of  the  weight  of 
the  seed  that  germinates  in  a  given  weight;  (2)  determina- 
tion of  the  number  of  seed-balls  per  100  which  germinate. 
In  view  of  the  wide  variations  in  the  size  of  the  seed-balls, 
and  the  fact  that  beet-seed  is  bought  by  weight,  it  is 
the  opinion  of  many  authorities  that  the  test  should  be 
by  weight  and  not  by  count.  Both  methods  have  their  ad- 
vocates, and  probably  a  large  proportion  of  the  tests  is 
made  by  count.  The  simplicity  of  this  method  is  in  its 
favor. 

The  plan  adopted  by  Vivien '  is  one  of  the  simplest  for 
testing  by  weight. 

Sift  4  or  5  grams  of  the  seed  in  a  sieve  of  5  mm. 
(j'f  inch  ca.)  mesh  ;  count  the  number  of  large  and  of 
small  balls;  weigh  and  calculate  the  mean  weight.  Soak 
the  seed  two  days  in  a  5-per-cent  solution  of  sodium 
nitrate. 

Sift  fine  soil  into  a  fiat-bottomed  dish  of  porous  earthen- 
ware to  a  depth  of  approximately  i  cm.  (|  inch  ca.);  place  a 
piece  of  wire  netting  of  approximately  i  cm.  (|-inch  ca.) 
mesh  on  the  earth,  and  in  each  mesh  place  one  large  ball. 
Press  the  earth  slightly,  and  cover  with  2  to  4  mm.  {^j  to 
^  inch  ca.)  of  soil.  The  small  seed-balls  are  similarly 
planted,  using  a  part  of  the  same  dish,  and  separating 
one  ioi  from  the  other  by  suitable  means.  The  dish  is 
placed  in  a  hothouse,  or  in  a  warm  place  in  the  laboratory, 

1  Bulletin  de  V Assoc,  des  Chitnistes  de  France,  1J8,  13. 


SEED-TESTING.  193 

and  Is  occasionally  watered  with  a  fine  spray  of  rain  or  dis- 
tilled water. 

From  day  to  day,  as  the  plantlets  appear,  the  seeds  are  re- 
moved from  the  soil  and  counted;  it  is  also  usual  to  count 
and  record  the  number  of  embryos  which  show  signs  of 
vitality.  A  splinter  of  wood  or  a  piece  of  a  match  is  sub- 
'stituted  for  each  seed  removed. 

The  average  weight  of  each  size  of  ball  is  taken  into  ac- 
count in  calculating  the  percentage  by  weight  of  seed  that 
germinates. 

Example, 
Per  IOC  kilos. 

Large  seed 22.29  kilos,  corres.  to  1,311,000  seeds. 

Small  seed 73.67  kilos,  corres.  to  5,262,000  seeds. 

Foreign  matter 4.04  kilos. 

Average  weight  of  the  large  seeds 0.017  gram. 

Number  per  gram 13. 11 

Average  weight  of  the  small  seeds 0.014  gram. 

Number  per  gram 52.62 

4  grams  were  used  in  the  germination  test,  correspond 
ing  to  3.84  grams  of  clean  seed: 

13. II  X  4  =    52  large  seeds,  weighing  0.89  gram. 
52.62  X  4=  211  small  seeds,  weighing  2.95  grams. 

3.84  grams. 

At  the  end  of  the  test  48  large  and  182  small  seeds  had 
germinated — i.e.,  92.3  large  seeds  per  100  seeds,  and  86.24 
small  seeds  per  100  ;  to  reduce  these  numbers  to  percent- 
ages by  weight  (referring  to  the  statement  of  the  example), 
we  have: 

Per  100  kilos, 
22.29  X  92.3    =  20.57  kilos  large  seed  germinated. 
73.67X86.24  =  63.53  kilos  small  seed  germinated. 
(By  difference)  11.83  kilos  worthless  seed. 
4.04  kilos  foreign  matter. 
Substituting  the  word  '*  pounds  "  for  "  kilos,"  we  have  the 
percentages  in  the  customary  weights  of  this  country. 

(2)  In  the  second  method  100  seeds  are  selected  at  ran- 
dom, and    the   number  which    germinate    is   counted.     In 


194       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR  HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

the  above  example  it  is  easy  to  calculate  that  this  method 
would  give  87.65  per  cent  of  good  seed  instead  of  84.1  per 
cent,  as  determined  by  weight. 

Authorities  differ  as  to  the  advisability  of  soaking  the 
seed  prior  to  the  test. 

The  question  of  the  use  of  sand,  soil,  or  other  material, 
or  of  the  necessity  of  sterilization  of  the  culture-bed,  is  not 
discussed  by  Vivien  in  the  paper  cited. 

In  the  methods  adopted  by  the  Association  of  American 
Agricultural  Colleges  and  Experiment  Stations '  blue  blot- 
ting-paper is  used.  In  supplementary  tests,  sand  which  has 
been  heated  to  destroy  organic  matter,  and  sterilized  pre- 
vious to  use,  is  recommended.  In  sand  tests,  the  sprouts 
which  appear  above  the  ground  are  counted.  The  sand 
and  blotters  should  be  kept  well  moistened  with  water,  but 
not  saturated,  during  the  test.  Only  potable  water  of  a 
temperature  approximating  that  of  the  seed-beet  should  be 
used.  The  temperature  should  be  kept  at  20°  C.  eighteen 
hours  out  of  each  twenty-four,  and  should  in  no  case  fall 
below  15°  C.  or  rise  above  32°  C.  The  seed  should  be  kept 
in  a  dark  place  during  the  germination  test. 

Pieters,'  of  the  Division  of  Botany,  describes  a  con- 
venient apparatus  for  testing  seed  on  a  small  scale  in  a 
report  published  by  the  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture: 

"  Use  a  large  dripping-pan  or  an  ordinary  frying-pan. 
Paint  it  to  prevent  rusting.  Put  four  supports  in  the  pan 
(inverted  porous  saucers  are  good),  and  place  a  tin  or  wire 
frame  upon  them,  as  shown  in  Fig.  74.  The  seeds  are  laid 
between  folds  of  blotting-paper  or  cloth,  which  are  then 
placed  on  the  frame.  A  flap  of  paper  or  cloth  hangs  down 
into  the  water,  which  half  fills  the  tray  and  keeps  the  folds 
moist. 

**  If  glass  can  be  had  to  put  over  the  pan,  evaporation 
will  not  be  so  rapid;  otherwise  the  water  will  need  replen- 
ishing frequently. 

"  The  tin  or  wire  tray  need  not  be  expensive,  and  can  be 

1  Circular  34,  Office  of  Experiment  Stations,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agri- 
culture . 

'  Y<arbooky  1896,  p.  183. 


SEED-TESTIIiTG. 


195 


replaced  by  anything  the  operator  may  have.  It  is  only 
necessary  that  a  flap  should  dip  into  the  water  to  provide 
moisture. 

"  In  testing  seed  some  trouble  will  be  experienced  from 
the  growth  of  mold.  If  the  cloths  and  dishes  are  used 
many  times  this  trouble  will  become  worse,  unless  the  spores 


Fig.  74. 

Of  the  fungi  are  killed.  This  can  easily  be  done  by  boiling 
all  cloths  and  washing  the  dishes  in  boiling  water  after  each 
test." 

172.  Characteristics  of  Good  Seed.— The  seed 
should  be  clean,  containing  as  much  as  95  per  cent  of  clean 
balls.  As  much  as  75  per  cent  by  weight  of  the  gross  seed 
should  germinate  in  the  testing-apparatus  within  15  days. 
As  much  as  85  per  cent  of  extra  good  seed  will  germinate 
in  this  time. 

The  following  are  the  German  sugar-manufacturers' 
specifications  relative  to  beet-seed  : 

A  kilogram  of  seed  should  produce  70,000  sprouts;  of  this 
number,  46,000  should  appear  within  six  days.  Seventy- 
five  per  cent  of  the  seed  (by  count),  at  least,  should  germi- 
nate. Seed  containing  up  to  and  including  14  per  cent  mois- 
ture may  be  considered  normal;  that  containing  14  to  17  per 
cent  may  be  accepted,  but  a  deduction  will  be  made  for  the 
excess  of  moisture  above  14  per  cent.  Foreign  matter  to 
the  extent  of  3  per  cent  is  admissible,  and  seed  containing 
up  to  5  per  cent  may  be  accepted,  6ut  a  deduction  will  be 
made  for  the  quantity  in  excess  of  3  per  cent.  Seed  not 
fulfilling  all  of  these  conditions  may  be  rejected.  Pro- 
vision is  made  for  check-analyses  in  the  event  of  disagree- 
ment. 


196       HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS, 

In  Austria,  seed  is  considered  normal,  as  regards  mois- 
ture-content, which,  after  24  hours'  exposure  in  an  open 
flask  at  a  temperature  of  18°  C.  to  air  of  52  per  cent  rela- 
tive humidity,  contains  10  per  cent  of  water. 

It  is  usual  to  state  that  in  good  seed  50  to  80  embryos 
per  gram  should  show  signs  of  vitality,  and  80  to  no  em- 
bryos in  extra-good  seed.  This  is  manifestly  not  a  fair 
test  of  the  quality  of  the  seed,  since,  for  example,  in  a  lot 
containing  50  seeds  per  gram  25  seeds  may  contain  more 
than  100  germs  and  the  lot  be  rated  as  extra  good,  whereas 
the  seed  is  poor.  After  thinning  out  the  plants,  but  25 
beets  would  be  produced  from  seed  that  this  method  would 
rate  high.  There  can  be  no  question,  however,  but  that 
it  is  an  advantage  for  the  seed  to  contain  a  large  number 
of  vital  embryos,  thus  insuring  greater  certainty  of  having 
the  rows  well  filled. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOXES.  197 


MISCELLANEOUS   NOTES. 

173.  Cobaltous  Nitrate  Test  for  Sucrose.' — 

To  about  15  cc.  of  sugar  solution  add  5  cc.  of  as  per  cent 
solution  of  cobaltous  nitrate.  After  thoroughly  mixing 
the  two  solutions,  add  2  cc.  of  a  50-per-cent  solution  of 
sodium  hydrate.  Pure  sucrose  gives  by  this  treatment  an 
amethyst-violet  color,  which  is  permanent.  Pure  dextrose 
gives  a  turquoise-blue  color  which  soon  passes  into  a  light 
green.  When  the  two  sugars  are  mixed,  the  coloration 
produced  by  sucrose  is  the  predominant  one,  and  one  part 
sucrose  in  nine  parts  dextrose  can  be  distinguished.  If 
the  sucrose  be  mixed  with  impurities,  such  as  gum-arabic 
or  dextrine,  treat  with  alcohol  or  subacetate  of  lead  before 
applying  the  test. 

174.  Test  for  Sucrose,  Using  a-NaplitlioL— Mix 
the  solution  supposed  to  contain  sucrose  in  a  test-tube  with 
2  to  3  drops  of  an  alcoholic  solution  of  a-naphthol;  then,  by 
means  of  a  pipette  or  other  device,  let  concentrated  sul- 
phuric acid  flow  to  the  bottom  of  the  tube  without  mixing 
with  the  solution.  In  the  presence  of  sucrose  a  violet 
zone  appears  at  the  line  of  demarkation  of  the  two  liquids 
and  gradually  spreads.  A  solution  containing  i  part  of 
sucrose  in  10,000,000  parts  of  water  shows  a  pale  lilac  col- 
oration. When  more  than  0.2  per  cent  sucrose  is  present 
the  sugar  is  charred  by  the  acid.^  A  similar  method  of 
making  the  test,  and  probably  the  original  method,  was 
described  by  H.  Molisch.'  Also  the  following :  Thymol 
used  instead  of  <T-naphthol  in  the  above  test  yields  a  deep- 
red  coloration,  which,  on  dilution  with  water,  gives  at  first 
a  fine  carmine,  then  a  carmine  fiocculent,  precipitate. 

175.  Nitrous     Oxide    Set    Free    in    Boiling 

1  Agricultural  Analysis,  H.  W.  Wiley,  vol.  iii.  p.  189. 
'  Rapp  and  Besemfelder,  Deutsche  Zucker.,  1892,  538. 
8  Monatsck  Chem.^  6,  198,  abstract  xnjourn.  Chemical  Society,  Abs.  50, 
923- 


198      HANDBOOK  FOE  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

Sug^ar. — Maumen6  called  attention  to  the  non-decomposi- 
tion of  nitrates  in  general  when  boiled  with  sugar,  and  to 
the  exception  that  nitrate  of  ammonium  is  decomposed 
under  these  conditions,  with  the  evolution  of  nitrous 
fumes.  He  observed  this  phenomenon  in  boiling  sugar,  in 
the  vacuum-pan,  and  also  that  sugar  is  decomposed  in  the 
presence  of  nitrate  of  ammonium,  or  of  other  salts  of  am- 
monium with  nitrates  in  general.  Evvell  made  similar 
observations  in  evaporating  sorghum-cane  juice  in  the 
multiple-effect  in  a  Kansas  factory. 

170.  Relative  to  the  Precipitate  Formed  on 
Heating:  Diftusiou-j  nice.— The  precipitate  obtained  by 
heating  diffusion-juice  contains  lo  to  20  per  cent  of  the  weight 
of  the  dry  matter  of  proteids,  also  large  quantities  of  pectous 
substances,  fatty  acids,  oxalic  acid,  lime,  magnesia,  and 
occasionally  phosphoric  acid.  It  contains  no  optically  active 
bodies,  though  they  are  probably  originally  present.' 

177.  Spontaneous  Combustion  of  Molasses.— 
The  feeding  of  cattle  with  a  mixture  of  molasses  and 
forage  is  extending  in  beet-sugar  countries.  The  storage 
of  the  mixtures  is  attended  with  some  risk  of  fire,  as  ^is 
indicated  by  the  following  :  Two  heaps  of  a  mixture  of 
I  part  molasses  and  2  parts  palm-oil  cake  were  stored  in  a 
sugar-house.  The  heaps  were  several  metres  apart.  After 
some  time  an  odor  similar  to  that  of  chicory  was  noticed, 
and  upon  investigation  the  material  in  both  heaps  was 
found  to  be  carbonized.  The  temperature  of  tbpjnterior 
of  the  heaps  was  fully  120°  C 

Crawley,  of  the  Hawaiian  experiment  station,  states 
that  a  quantity  of  cane-molasses  stored  in  a  cistern  in  a 
cane-sugar  house  on  one  of  the  islands,  boiled  violently, 
and  after  twelve  hours  only  a  charred  mass  was  left.^ 

178.  Calorific  Value  of  Molasses.— Three  experi- 
ments were  made  with  molasses,  using  a  Mahler  calorim- 
eter, and  the  following  results  were  obtained  :* 

*  Herzfield,  Zeit.  RUbenzttcker-Tnd.,  43,  1065. 

'  Bulletin  de  rAssitciatioH  ties  Ghent istes  d«  France,  14,  71a 

*  Journ.  Am.  Chem.  Soc.  19,  238. 

*  Canaille  Martignon,  Bulletin  de  f  Association  des  Chemistes  de  France^ 
14.  366. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES.  199 

(i)  Beet-molasses 3000  calories 

(2)  Cane-molasses 2675         " 

(3)  Cane-molasses  from  Louisiana  ..  2646        " 

A  number  of  Cuban  sugar-bouses  burn  the  molasses  for 
the  production  of  steam. 

179.  Fermentation. — Ferment,— hny  substance  ca- 

able  of  producing  fermentation. 

Vinous  or  Alcoholic  Fermentation. — Liquid  disturbed;  rise 
in  temperature  and  increase  in  volume;  carbonic  acid  es- 
capes, forming  peculiar  bubbles  on  the  surface  of  the 
liquid.  A  temperature  between  15°  and  18°  C.  is  favorable 
to  this  fermentation;  between  18°  and  30°  the  fermentation 
proceeds  very  rapidly;  it  is  checked  below  15°  C,  and  ceases 
entirely  below  12^  C. 

Acetic  Fermentation. — The  favorable  temperatures  are 
between  20'  and  35'  C.  The  liquid  becomes  turbid,  and  is 
filled  with  a  ropy  substance.  Finally,  the  solution  clears 
up  and  acetic  acid  is  formed.  Use  lime  to  check  this  fer- 
mentation. 

Putrid  Fermentation.  —  This  fermentation  follows  the 
acetic  stage.  The  solution  becomes  turbid  and  viscous; 
ammonia  is  set  free,  and  a  sediment  deposits.  The  fetid 
odor  is  repulsive. 

Viscous  Fermentation.  —  The  solution  becomes  thick, 
slimy,  ropy;  and  starchy  matters  and  sugar  are  transformed 
into  gummy  substances.  A  mucilaginous  appearance  is 
characteristic.  Small  quantities  of  carbonic  acid  and  hy- 
drogen are  liberated.  Wash  the  tanks  with  a  dilute  sul- 
phuric-acid solution  to  eliminate  this  ferment  (5  per  cent 
solution  of  66'  acid). 

Lactic  Fermentation. — This  fermentation  may  exist  in  the 
presence  of  the  viscous  ferment.  Odor  acid,  taste  very 
disagreeable.  This  ferment  is  checked  by  acidity  ;  hence, 
use  sulphuric  acid  in  washing  the  tanks. 

Mucous  Fermentation, — Sugar-beet  juices  are  attacked  by 
this  ferment  in  the  presence  of  nitrogenous  bodies  and  the 
air.  Mannite,  gum,  and  carbonic  acid  are  formed.  The 
liquid  becomes  thick  and  ropy. 

*^  Frog-spawn.'' — Called  '' frais  de  grenouilles"  by  the 
French  and  Froschlaischpilz  by  the  Germans.      The  juice 


200      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

assumes  a  jelly-like  or  gelatinous  state;  this  is  usually 
attributed  to  Leuconastoe  mesenteroides.  F.  Glaser^  has 
shown  that  another  bacterium,  which  differs  from  the  above 
in  not  flourishing  in  \o%  neutral  molasses,  can  produce  this 
phenomenon.  This  organism  is  known  as  Bacterium  gelati- 
nosum  beta,  and  grows  rapidly  in  sugar-beet  juice  gelatine. 
As  stated,  this  organism  does  not  thrive  in  lo^  molasses,  but 
if  the  slimy  precipitate  obtained  by  the  addition  of  alcohol 
to  the  juice  or  its  ash  be  added,  development  takes  place. 
Pari  passu  with  this  gelatinous  formation  the  sucrose  is 
inverted  and  alcohol  is  produced.  The  gelatinous  mass  is 
similar  to  the  beet  gums. 

This  substance  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  and  with  diffi- 
culty in  cold  acids,  but  almost  completely  soluble  in  hot 
acids  and  alkalis. 

A  Peculiar  Fermentation  of  Beet-juice. — The  juice  occa- 
sionally becomes  mucilaginous.  This  is  due  to  a  fer- 
mentation the  products  of  which  are  dextrose,  manitol, 
and  nonvolatile  organic  acids.  There  is  also  an  organic 
substance  formed  which  is  not  precipitable  by  subacetate 
of  lead. 2 

Soil-ferments  as  a  Cause  of  the  Formation  of  Gas  in  the 
Diffusers. — The  evolution  of  gas  in  the  diffusers  is  attrib- 
uted by  Neitzel  to  the  action  of  soil-ferments  upon  the  beet. 
The  gases  examined  in  an  experiment,  and  drawn  from  the 
second  and  eighth  diffusers,  contained,  respectively,  11.4  to 
51.5^  carbonic  acid,  o  to  57.8^  hydrogen,  and  10.8  to  68^ 
nitrogen.     Free  oxygen  was  rarely  found.' 

Fermentation  of  the  Massecuites  in  the  Hot-room. — Accord- 
ing to  Horsin-D6on,  the  "  foaming  "  or  "  boiling  up  "  of  the 
massecuite  in  the  hot-room  tanks  is  due  to  a  viscous  fer- 
mentation in  which  the  sugar  is  transformed  into  mannite, 
gums,  carbonic  acid,  and  water  without  the  formation  of 
glucose.  The  mannite  combines  with  the  organic  acids 
and  disappears,  leaving  gums  which  render  the  massecuite 

^  Cent.  Bl.  Bacter.^  1895,  2  abth.,  1,  Zjg',  Journ.  Soc.  Chem.  Ind.,  16, 
aoo. 

2  Anderlik.  Ztit.  Ziicker.-Ind.,  Bohm.,  18,  90. 

3  Neitzel,  A',  Zeit.  Riibenzucker-Jnd.,  1895,  36,  22 ;  Journ,  Soc.  Chem. 
Jnd.,  14,  876. 


MISCELLANEOUS  NOTES.  201 

viscous.'     For  further  opinions  relative  to  this  matter  see 
page  215. 

180.  Melassigenic  Salts.'— The  following  salts  are 
positive  molasses-makers,  i.e.,  salts  which  promote  the  for- 
mation of  molasses:  carbonate,  acetate,  butyrate,  and  cit- 
rate of  potassium. 

The  following  have  no  influence  on  the  formation  of 
molasses,  and  are  classified  as  indifferent:  sulphate,  nitrate 
and  chloride  of  potassium,  carbonate  and  chloride  sodium, 
calcium  hydrate,  valerianate,  oxalate  and  succinate  of 
potassium,  and  oxalate,  citrate,  and  aspartate  of  sodium. 

The  negative  molasses-makers,  i.e.,  salts  which  promote 
the  crystallization  of  sucrose,  are  sulphate,  nitrate,  acetate, 
butyrate,  valerianate  and  succinate  of  sodium,  sulphate 
chloride  and  nitrate  of  magnesium,  the  chloride  and  nitrate 
of  calcium,  and  the  aspartate  of  potassium. 

The  above  classification  is  from  the  investigations  of 
Marschall.^ 

181.  The  Chemical  Composition  of  the  Sugar- 
beet. — In  addition  to  the  carbohydrate  bodies,  chlorophyll 
and  water,  the  following  organic  substances  have  been 
identified  in  the  sugar-beet  by  various  chemists  : 

Oxalic,  formic,  citric,  malonic,  succinic,  aconitic,  tricar- 
ballicylic,  oxycitric,  malic,  and  tartaric  acids  in  the  juice. 
The  last  eight  were  identified  by  von  Lippmann.  Other 
acids  formed  through  decompositions  due  to  the  manufac- 
turing process  are  mentioned  later. 

The  following  nitrogenous  bodies  have  been  identified  : 
Betalne  (Scheibler),  CbHuNOs  or  CsHisNOs;  Asparagine 
(Scheibler),  C4H8N2O3  ;  glutamine  (Schultze  and  Bosshard), 
CeHioNaOs;  leucine  (von  Lippmann),  CbHisNOq;  legumine. 
von  Lippmann  has  identified  the  following  nitrogenous 
bodies  in  addition  to  those  named:  Tyrosine  (C9H11NO3); 
Xanthine  bodies,— viz.:  Xanthine  (C6H4N4O3),  guanine 
(CsHfiNfiO),  hypoxanthine  (CaHtNtO).  adenine  (CsHaNs), 
and  carnine  (C7H8N403);  the  following  decomposition- 
products,  which  are  the  cause  of  ammonia  so  noticeable  in 

I  HorsinD^on,  Bulletin  de  r  Assoc.  Chimistes  de  France,  4,  223. 
»  Marschall,  Z  it.  Rubenzucke' -In  •..  !?0,  398   6to;  21,  57. 


20S      HANDBOOK  FOE  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

beet-sugar  manufacture  and  of  the  variations  in  the  alka- 
linity of  the  juice,  were  also  identified  by  von  Lippmann: 
Arginine,  guanidine,  allantonine,  vernine,  vicine,  and,  in 
the  young  plant,  alloxanthine. 

Through  the  decomposition  of  some  of  the  above  sub- 
stances, in  the  manufacture,  the  following  have  been  identi- 
fied in  the  molasses:  Glutannic  acid  (Scheibler),  C5H9NO4, 
from  glutamine,  and  aspartic  acid,  C4H7NO4,  from  aspara- 
gine. 

The  following  non-nitrogenous  bodies  are  found  in  the 
beet:  Lecithine,  a  "  phosphorized  fat;"  pectose,  an  insol- 
uble substance,  which  is  converted  into  soluble  pectine 
by  pectase,  a  substance  having  the  properties'of  a  ferment, 
which  is  also  present.  Pectine  in  water  solution  is  con- 
verted by  heat  into  parapectine;  acids  convert  it  into  meta- 
pectic  acid,  and  alkalis  into  pectic  and  parapectic  acids. 
Pectase  converts  pectine  into  pectosic  acid.  Of  these  bodies, 
pectine  and  parapectic  acid  are  dextrorotatory,  having  a 
specific  rotatory  power  2.7  times  that  of  sucrose.  The  pec- 
tose bodies  are  of  great  importance,  both  in  sugar  analy- 
sis and  manufacture. 

Pectic  acid  forms  soluble  amorphous  bodies  with  alkalis 
and  insoluble  pectates  with  lime. 

The  cellular  tissue  frequently  contains  coniferine  (E.  de 
Lippmann);  this  is  oxidized  to  vanilline,  which  has  been 
found  in  molasses  (Scheibler).  Cholesterine  has  also  been 
found  in  the  molasses  (Lippmann).  "  ■'^rn('i  jifJ 

Among  the  mineral  constituents  of  the  beef  are  tire  fol- 
lowing: Salts  of  potassium,  sodium,  rubidium,  vanadium, 
calcium,  magnesium,  iron,  and  manganese;  the  bases  are 
combined  with  hydrochloric,  sulphuric,  nitric,  phosphoric, 
and  silicic  acids,  also  with  the  organic  acids  present  in  the 
beet. 

The  information  relative  to  the  composition  of  the  beet 
is  derived  mainly  from  von  Lippmann's '  paper  cited  In 
the  foot-note,  Sidersky's,  Traits  d' analyse  dis  Matihtes 
Sucrdes,  and  Horsin-D^on's  TVa///  d'^  la  Fabricatiotty^d^ 
Sucre.  

'  ....  ,■  -     '    '  -    f  i....V'>'    ■' 

>  Bulletin  de  I ''Assoc.  Chim.  de  FraneeiX^^  i^x  ahd  Bigr^ -"  " 


MISCELLANEOUS   KOTES.  203 

The  following  table  showing  the  distribution  of  the  nitro- 
gen in  the  beet  is  from  analyses  by  Ed.  Urbain: ' 

Per  Cent        Per  Cent  of  the 
in  the  Beet.    Total  Nitrogen. 

Total  nitrogen o.  198 

Nitrogen  of  insoluble  proteids...  0.012  6.06 

Albuminoid  nitrogen 0.063  31.81 

Nitric  nitrogen 0.050  25.25 

Amide  and  ammoniacal  nitrogen.  0.069  34-84 

Loss 2.04 


100.00 


There  is  a  reducing  substance  present  in  the  beet  that  is 
not  a  sugar.  Its  composition  is  not  definitely  known.  It 
is  usually  termed  "  Bodenbender's  substance,"  from  the 
name  of  the  discoverer. 

182.  List  of  Keagents  Suggested  for  the  Treat- 

llieilt  of  Beet-jlliee.^ — {von  Lippmann,  Zeit.  RUben- 
zucker-Ind.,  1886,  621,) 

Chloride  of  calcium,  Z.,  II,  65. 

Chloride  of  lime,  Z.,  VII,  423. 

Carbonate  of  calcium,  Maumene,  J.  d  F.  S.,  17,  22. 

Acetate  of  calcium,  Durieux,  Jahresber.,  8,  334. 

Sulphate  of  calcium,  Duquesne,  Dingier,  196,  83. 

Chloride  of  strontium,  Kottmann,  Z.,  32,  899. 

Chloride  of  barium,  Licht,  Berl.  Ber.,  15,  1471. 

Chloride  of  barium  with  caustic  soda,  Plecque,  D.  Z.  I., 
2.  51. 

Barium  hydroxide  with  sulphate  of  aluminum,  Eisen- 
stuck,  Jahresber.,  3,  244. 

Oxide  of  magnesium,  Thenard,  Z.,  13,  128. 

Carbonate  of  magnesium,  Reich,  Z.,  G,  173. 


'  Bulletin  de  V Associr.tion  des  Chitnistes  de  France,  14,  1095. 
'  Abbreviations  :    Z.  =  Zeitschrift  des  Vereins  ffir  die  RUbenzucker-In- 
dustrie  des  Deutschen  Reichs. 

N.  Z.  =  Neue  Zeitschrift  fUr  die  RiJbenzucker-Industrie  (Scbeibler). 

D.  Z.  I.  =  Deutsche  Zuckerindustrie. 

J.  d.  F.  S.  =  Journal  des  Fabricants  de  Sucre. 

Dingier  =  Dingler's  Polytecnische  Journal. 

Berl.  Ber.  =  Herichte  der  deutschen  cliemischen  Gesellschaft. 

Jahresber.  =  Jahresbericht. 


204      HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Sulphate  of  magnesium,  Bayvet,  Z.,  lO,  256. 

Hydrate  of  magnesium,  Riimpler,  D.  Z.  I.,  1879,  52. 

Sulphite  of  magnesium,  Dubrenil,  J.  d.  F.  S.,  13,  27. 

Chloride  of  magnesium,  Kessler,  Z.,  16,  760. 

Dolomite,  Dubrenil,  Berl.  Ber.,  6,  155. 

Sulphate  of  magnesium  with  sulphide  of  barium,  Drum- 
mond.  Dingier,  203,  325. 

Acid  sulphite  of  magnesium,  Becker,  Z.,  1886. 

Sulphate  of  magnesium  ar)d  sulphide  of  calcium,  Drum- 
mond.  Dingier,  203,  325. 

Chloride  of  ammonium,  Licht,  Jahresber.,  24,  415. 

Sulphate  of  ammonium,  Beanes,  Dingier,  167,  220. 

Ammonia  and  lime,  Marot,  Berl.  Ber.  9,  643. 

Carbonate  of  ammonium,  Stammer,  Z.,  9,  430. 

Phosphate  of  magnesium,  Kessler,  Z.,  15,  525. 

Phosphate  of  ammonium,  Kuhlmann,  Z.,  II,  92. 

Phosphate  of  sodium,  Z.,  2,  130. 

Phosphate  of  potassium,  Blanchard,  Berl.  Ber.,  6,  153. 

Double  phosphate  of  calcium  and  sodium,  Gwynne,  Z., 
3,  292. 

Tribasic  phosphate  of  lime  with  phosphate  of  ammonium, 
Leplay,  Z.,  12,  193. 

Acid  phosphate  of  calcium  with  sulphate  of  magnesium, 
Kessler,  Z.,  15,  51. 

Phosphate  of  calcium  with  sulphate  of  aluminum,  Kess- 
ler, ibid. 

Sulphite  of  ammonium,  Beauss,  Dingier,  167,  220. 

Sulphite  of  lime,  Calvert,  Z.,  12,  500. 

Sulphite  of  sodium,  Perier-Possoz,  Z.,  12,  128. 

Sulphite  of  magnesia,  Mehay,  Z.,  23,  27. 

Bisulphite  of  calcium,  Reynose.  Z.,  12,  501. 

Basic  sulphite  of  magnesium,  Z.,  23,  26. 

Bisulphite  of  calcium  with  sulphate  of  aluminum,  Leyde, 

z.,  1,365. 

Bisulphite  of  iron,  Becker,  N.  Z.,  16^6, 

Hydroxide  of  iron  with  plaster,  Rousseau,  Z. ,  11,  67. 

Chloride  of  iron,  Krai,  Z.,  18,  317. 

Ferric  sulphate,  Krai,  ibid. 

Ferrous  sulphate,  Bayvet,  Z.,  10,  256. 

Sulphate  of  manganese,  Masse,  Z.,  ibid. 


MISCELLANEOUS   NOTES.  205 

Chloride  of  tin,  Maumene,  J.  d.  F.  S.,  20,  7. 

Chloride  of  tin,  Manoury,  Z.,  34,  1275. 

Stannous  sulphate,  Org,  Z.,  15,  76. 

Oxide  of  tin  with  soda,  Berl.  Ber.,  19,  520. 

Sulphate  of  zinc,  Kindler,  Z.,  3,  556. 

Nitrate  of  zinc,  Decastro,  Jahresber. ,  19,  340. 

Nitrate  of  zinc  with  alkaline  sulphides,  ibid. 

Nitrate  of  zinc  with  sulphide  of  barium  or  of  calcium,  ibid. 

Zinc-dust,  with  sulphuric  acid  and  sulphide  of  barium, 

Crespo,  Jahresber.,  24,  416. 
Acetate  of  lead  and  sulphide  of  sodium,  Maumen6,  in  his 

"Traits." 
Hydroxide  of  lead,  Gwynne,  Z.,  3,  292. 
Acetate  of  lead,  ibid. 
Saccharate  of  lead,  ibid. 
Hydrate  of  aluminum,  Howard,  Z.,  2,  92. 
Colloidal  aluminum,  Lowig,  Z.,  29,  905. 
Silicate  of  aluminum  (Walkererde),  blue  clay,  Fritsche, 

Z.,  35,  261. 
Chloride    of   aluminum,  with  lime,  Siemen,  Jahresber., 

18,  256. 
Fluoride  of  aluminum,  Kessler,  Z.,  15,  525. 
Sulphate  of  aluminum,  Kessler,  Z.,  15,  51. 
Alum,  Kindler,  Z.,  3,  556. 
Phosphate  of  aluminum,  Oxland,  Z.,  2,  92. 
Acid  phosphate  of  aluminum,  ibid.,  2,  130. 
Acetate  of  aluminum,  Schubarth,  Z.,  2,  92. 
Sulphite  of  aluminum,  Mehay,  Z.,  23,  27. 
Sulphite  of  aluminum,   with  hydrate  of  calcium,  Schu- 
barth, Z.,  2,  129. 
Sulphite   of    aluminum    with    sulphate    of    manganese, 

Mass6,  Z.,  10,  256. 
Bisulphite  of  aluminum,  Becker,  Z.,  35,  924. 
Hydrosulphite  of  aluminum,  Becker,  Z.,  1886  (?). 
Aluminates  of   the  alkaline  earths,  Alicoque,  D.  Z.  I., 

2,51. 
Aluminate  of  calcium,  Oxland,  Z.,  2,  92. 
Fluosilicate  of  aluminum,  Kessler,  Z.,  16,  760. 
Silica,  Schubarth,  Z.,  2,  92. 
Silicate  of  sodium,  Wagner,  Z.,  9,  331. 


206       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Borax,  Brear,  Berl.  Ber.,  15,  1224. 

Borate  of  calcium,  ibid. 

Hydrofluoric  acid,  Frickenhaus,  Z.,  15,  43. 

Fluosilicic  acid,  Kessler,  Z.,  16,  760. 

Sulphuric  acid,  Kessler,  ibid. 

Sulphuric   acid  and  sulphurous  acid,    Possoz,    Dingier, 
170,64. 

Sulphurous  acid  and  sulphite  of  calcium,   Calvert,    Z-, 
12,  500, 

Phosphoric  acid,  Stammer,  Z.,  9,  433. 

Tannin,  Wagner,  Z.,  9,  331. 

Pertannic  acid  (Ubergerbsaure),  Meretens,  Z.,  28,  842. 

Stearic  acid,  Wagner,  Z.,  9,  331. 

Oleic  acid,  Th^nard,  Z.,  8,  130. 

Acetic  acid  and  caustic  soda.   Marguerite,  J.  d.    F.   S. 
18,  248. 

Acetic  acid  and  sulphurous  acid,  Z.,  20,  741. 

Tartaric  acid,  Possoz,  Z.,  23,  27. 

Oxalic  acid,  Wagner,  Z.,  9,  331. 

Salicylic  acid,  D.  Z.  I..  1884,  7. 

Carbolic  acid,  ibid. 

Soap,  Basset,  Z.,  7,  381. 

Caseine,  Kriiger,  Z.,  9,  221. 

Pectic  acid,  Acar,  Wagner's  "  Technology,"  12,  Aufl.  563. 

Alcohol,  P^sier,  Z.,  11,  522. 

Alcohol  with  plaster  and  sulphuric  acid,  Duquesne,  Ding- 
ier, 196,  83. 

Alcohol  with  chlorine,  Duncan,  Jahresber.,  22,  274. 

Alcohol  (methylic),  Trobach,  D.  Z.  I.,  11,  1302. 

Glycerine,  Rabe,  Z.,  14,  124. 

Ozone,  Lee,  Z.,  ibid. 

Peroxide  of  hydrogen,  Frank,  Z.,  11,  392. 

Charcoal  from  peat,  lignite,  brown  coal,  Maumen6,  Z.,  4. 
452. 

Lignite,  Knauer,  Z.,  11,  350. 

Brown  coal  (lignite),  Knauer,  Z.,  ibid. 

Brick-dust,  Maumen6,  in  his  "  Traits." 


SUGAR-HOUSE  KOTES.  207 


SUGAR-HOUSE  NOTES. 

1 83.  Diffusion.—  fVaf^r-su/>pl)>.— Relative  to  the  pur- 
ity  of  the  water-supply,  sre  page  167. 

Temperature. — The  higher  the  temperature  maintained 
in  the  battery,  other  conditions  being  equal,  the  faster  the 
diflfusion.  A  low  temperature  requires  a  long  contact  of 
the  beet-cuttings  with  the  water,  in  order  to  obtain  a 
satisfactory  extraction.  Many  authorities  limit  the  maxi- 
mum temperature  to  80°  C.  (176°?.).  The  eminent  French 
authority,  Dupont,  recommends  the  following  tempera- 
tures in  a  battery  of  12  dififusers,  10  of  which  are  in 
activity: 

Diffuser  No i  2      (3,4,5,6,7,8)  9  lo 

Temp   deg.  F 104°         i4o">         leg^-iSs"         i49°-i58°         i04°-i22*» 

Temp.  deg.  C 40"  60°  76° -85"  650-70"  4o'>-5o'' 

Dififuser  No.  i  contains  the  exhausted  cossettes  or 
"pulp." 

Volume  of  Juice  to  Draw.— According  to  Dupont,  Secre- 
tary of  the  French  Association  of  Sugar-house  Chem- 
ists, the  density  of  the  diffusion-juice  should  be  approxi- 
mately eight  tenths  the  density  of  the  normal  juic-e.  His 
table  on  page  246  shows  that  the  quantity  of  juice  which 
should  be  drawn  with  beets  of  different  richness  to  obtain 
a  juice  eight  tenths  the  normal  density  varies  but  little. 
The  volume  of  juice  to  be  drawn  need  not  exceed  115  to 
120  litres  per  100  kilograms  of  beets  without  regard  to 
their  richness.  The  method  of  using  the  table  is  best 
shown  by  example:  With  beets,  the  normal  juice  of  which 
has  a  density  of  9°,  if  109  litres  of  diffusion-juice  be  drawn, 
its  density  should  be  7.2";  if  112  litres  be  drawn,  the 
density  should  be  7°.     With  careful  work  it  is  practicable 


208      HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

to  obtain  dense  juices,  and  lose  only  from  0.15  to  0.26  per 
cent  of  the  weight  of  the  exhausted  cossettes  of  sucrose. 

Difficulties  in  Diffusion-work. — Some  difficulty  may  be 
experienced  in  the  conduct  of  the  diffusion  when  the  sup- 
ply of  beets  is  irregular,  the  battery  overheated,  the  roots 
imperfectly  washed,  or  the  knives  improperly  sharpened 
or  set.  The  remedies  are  self-evident.  The  work  should 
be  so  conducted  that  the  juice  may  be  drawn  at  regular 
intervals.  The  intervals  should  be  lengthened  in  the  event 
of  a  shortage  in  the  supply  of  beets  or  delays  in  the  sugar- 
house.  A  lon^delay  in  the  diffusion-work  or  excessively 
slow  work  results  in  impure  juices,  which  yield  but  stub- 
bornly to  subsequent  treatment. 

Overheating  affects  the  purity  of  the  juice  adversely, 
cooks  the  beet-cuttings,  and  renders  them  difficult  to  press. 
Overheating  is  also  liable  to  cause  the  cuttings  to  pack  or 
mat  in  the  diffuser  and  thus  render  the  circulation  of  the 
juice  slow  and  imperfect  and  the  pulp  difficult  to  remove 
from  the  cell.  Overheating  may  also  cause  pectic  bodies 
to  pass  into  solution,  which  later  in  the  manufacture  result 
in  compounds  which  impede  the  filtration  of  the  juice. 

184.  "Gray"  Juice. — According  to  Herzfeld^  tht 
cause  of  this  phenomenon  is  somewhat  obscure.  Invert- 
sugar  and  similar  bodies,  are  present  in  the  beet,  and 
react  with  the  alkalis,  sodium,  and  potassium,  during  the 
evaporation,  and  form  apoglucic  acid  and  humlc  sub- 
stances, which  color  the  juice.  The  oxide  of  iron  also 
plays  a  part. 

Beets  exposed  in  mild  weather  to  rain  lose  much  sugar 
through,  renewed  vegetation,  and  impart  a  gray  color  to 
the  juice. 

It  is  difficult  to  remedy  this  coloration.  Sulphurous  acid 
modifies  it  but  little.  Sugars  from  such  juices  lose  this 
color  if  stored  in  the  warehouse  about  two  weeks,  and 
subjected  to  frequent  mixing. 

185.  Carbonatation. — It  is  the  practice  in  many 
houses  to  pass  the  juice,  flowing  from  the  measuring-tank 
at  the  battery,  through  a  heater  in  which  its  temperature 

*  Bulletin  P Assoc,  des  Chimistes  de  France,  13,  663. 


SUGAR-HOUSE   N^OTES.  209 

is  raised  by  the  vapors  from  the  last  pan  of  the  multiple- 
effect.  A  small  quantity  of  lime  is  then  added,  about  5 
quarts  of  the  milk  of  20°  Baum6  per  1000  gallons,  and  the 
juice  is  passed  through  a  heater,  its  temperature  quickly 
raised  to  about  90°  C,  and  the  lime  added,  preparatory  to 
the  first  carbonatation.  In  many  houses  the  lime  is 
placed  to  the  juice  immediately  after  it  leaves  the  measur- 
ing-tank. 

In  the  early  part  of  the  season,  the  quantity  of  lime 
used  for  the  first  carbonatation  is  much  smaller  than  the 
amount  necessary  later  on.  More  lime  is  required  when 
the  beets  are  in  a  bad  condition  than  when  sound.  The 
quantity  used  is  about  15  pounds  of  quicklime  per  100 
gallons  of  juice,  but  with  unsound  beets  this  amount  is 
often  exceeded. 

In  France,  the  lime  is  usually  slaked,  and  reduced  to  a 
milk  of  20°  Baum6  with  the  thin  juice  obtained  in  washing 
the  filter-cake.  The  practice  in  many  houses  is  to  place 
the  quicklime  in  wire  baskets  and  slake  it  directly  in  the 
juice  in  the  carbonatation-tank.  This  practice  is  extend- 
ing. The  carbonatation  should  be  effected  with  rich 
gas,  i.e.^  containing  approximately  30  per  cent  carbonit 
acid,  thus  not  only  economizing  time,  but  producing  a 
precipitate  which  is  more  easily  removed  by  the  filter- 
presses.  Practice  differs  as  to  the  temperature  of  the 
carbonatation,  but  with  rich  juices  a  temperature  of  ap- 
proximately 85°  C.  appears  to  give  the  more  satisfactory 
results.  With  weak  juices  a  lower  temperature  is  often 
employed. 

Toward  the  end  of  the  carbonatation,  the  juice  is  heated 
to  80°  to  90°  C,  thus  breaking  up  the  sucrocarbonates  of 
lime  which  have  been  formed.  Practice  also  differs  relative 
to  this  temperature. 

There  is  an  alkalinity  of  i  gram  to  1.6  grams,  calculated 
as  lime  (CaO),  per  litre  of  juice  after  the  first  carbonata- 
tion. 

Second  Carbonatation  or  Saturation. — The  quantity  of  lime 
required  in  the  second  carbonatation  is  from  2  to  4  pounds 
per  100  gallons  of  juice.  The  gas  is  passed  into  the  limed 
juice,  when  working  with  sound   beets,  until  a  test  shows 


210       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

that  the  free  lime  is  saturated  ;  late  in  the  season,  or  when 
the  beets  are  in  a  bad  condition,  the  supply  of  gas  is  cut 
off  before  the  alkalinity  is  entirely  saturated.  When  work- 
ing without  sulphur,  the  alkalinity  is  usually  reduced  to 
0.02  gram  per  litre,  using  phenolphthalein  as  an  indicator. 
In  some  factories,  instead  of  leaving  a  slight  alkalinity 
due  to  lime,  a  small  quantity  of  carbonate  of  soda  is  added 
to  the  juice.     This  practice  is  of  doubtful  utility. 

On  the  completion  of  the  carbonatation,  the  juice  is  boiled 
two  or  three  minutes,  then  filtered. 

Difficulties. — A  defective  first  carbonatation  results  in 
difficulty  in  the  filtration  of  the  juice,  imperfect  removal 
of  the  sugar  from  the  filter-press  cakes,  juices  of  lower 
purity  than  necessary,  and  formation  of  lime  salts.  It  may 
also  result  in  difficulty  inboiling  the  sugar  to  grain  in  the 
vacuum-pan.  These  difficulties  arise  from  a  slow  carbon- 
atation, too  low  a  temperature  (sucrocarbonates  of  lime  in 
the  press-cake),  too  little  lime,  excessive  use  of  the  car- 
bonic acid,  or  excessive  alkalinity  of  the  juice  from  the 
second  carbonatation. 

180.  Sulphuring". — Sulphurous  acid  is  usually  em- 
ployed in  the  gaseous  state,  in  the  manufacture  of  white 
sugar,  without  bone-black. 

When  sulphurous  acid  is  used  the  following  procedure  is 
advised  :  The  second  carbonatation  is  stopped  when  the 
alkalinity  is  reduced  to  .5  to  .6  gram  per  litre,  calculated  as 
caustic  lime,  CaO,  and  the  juice  is  boiled  and  filter-pressed, 
as  usual.  The  filtered  juice  is  treated  with  sulphurous- 
acid  gas  at  a  temperature  of  95°  C,  until  the  alkalinity  is 
reduced  to  .1  to  .15  gram  per  litre;  the  juice  is  then 
boiled. 

The  sulphuring  must  be  very  carefully  controlled,  in  order 
to  avoid  loss  of  sugar  through  inversion. 

187.  Difficulties  in  Filter-pressing.— With  juice 
from  sound  beets,  properly  treated  in  the  carbonatation 
process,  the  filtration  is  always  easy. 

If  the  juice  have  not  been  sufficiently  heated  after  the 
first  carbonatation,  or  the  supply  of  gas  have  been  cut  off 
too  soon,  the  juice  will  filter  badly;  also,  if  too  little  lime, 
or  Hmc  from  stone  containing  too  much  silica  or  having 


SUGAR-HOUSE   NOTES.  211 

hydraulic  properties  have  been  employed.  In  the  U.  S. 
Government's  experiments,  in  carbonating  sorghum-cane 
juices,  the  limestone  supplied  by  the  contractor  had  de- 
cided hydraulic  properties.  The  filter-press  cake  soon 
became  hard,  forming  an  impervious  slab  of  artificial  stone. 
A  supply  of  suitable  lime  remedied  the  difl!iculty.  This 
illustrates  the  importance  of  a  chemical  examination  of  the 
limestone  supplied  the  factory. 

A  German  manufacturer  had  considerable  difl[iculty  in 
filter-pressing  certain  juices.  The  usual  remedies  were 
applied,  without  success.  A  sample  of  the  filter-press  cake 
was  sent  to  Dr.  Herzfeld,  of  the  German  Sugar  Manufac- 
turers* Association,  who  found,  on  analysis,  1.3  per  cent 
ferric  oxide  and  0.3  per  cent  aluminic  oxide  in  the  dry 
sample.  He  explained  the  difficulty  as  follows  :  In  the 
presence  of  iron,  pectine  forms  a  flocculent,  spongy  mass 
of  ferropectine,  and  not  calcium  pectate,  which  is  granular. 
It  is  probable  that,  owing  to  an  abnormal  quantity  of 
pectine,  formed  by  excessive  heat  in  the  battery,  in  the 
presence  of  iron  from  the  lime,  a  large  quantity  of  ferro- 
pectine was  formed,  which  obstructed  the  cloths. 

A  proper  adjustment  of  the  quantity  of  lime  added  to 
the  juice,  and  careful  control  of  the  diffusion  and  of  the 
first  carbonatation,  will  usually  remedy  diflSculties  in  the 
filtration. 

188.  Lime-kiln. — The  relative  quantities  of  coke  and 
limestone  vary  between  wide  limits  in  the  practice  of  vari- 
ous sugar-houses.  According  to  Gallois,  who  has  made 
probably  one  of  the  most  exhaustive  studies  of  the  lime- 
kiln yet  published,  the  quantity  of  coke  theoretically  re- 
quired is  6  pounds  for  the  decomposition  of  100  pounds  of 
limestone  containing  95  per  cent  of  calcium  carbonate. 
This  is  approximately  i  volume  of  coke  per  6  volumes  of 
limestone.  Gallois  advises,  however,  in  practice,  the  use 
of  I  volume  of  coke  per  4  to  5  volumes  of  limestone. 
These  proportions  of  coke  and  limestone  produce  a  satis- 
factory gas. 

Some  authorities  recommend  3  volumes  of  limestone  to  i 
volume  of  coke. 

The   coke   and   stone    should   be    well   mixed,    and   dis- 


212       HANDBOOK    FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

tributed  as  evenly  as  possible  in  the  kiln.  Notes  relative 
to  the  quality  of  the  limestone  are  given  on  the  following 
page. 

The  gas  produced  by  the  furnace  should  contain  ap- 
proximately 30  per  cent  of  carbonic  acid. 

Difficulties. — The  difficulties  usually  encountered  in  the 
management  of  the  lime-kiln  are  as  follows  :  A  limestone 
containing  too  much  silica  will  show  a  tendency  to  fuse, 
and,  if  overheated,  will  adhere  firmly  to  the  walls  of  kiln.' 
Stone  in  too  small  pieces,  or  stone  and  coke  improperly 
mixed,  or  stone  with  an  excess  of  coke,  will  sometimes 
"  scaffold  "  or  bridge.  The  above  conditions  soon  prevent 
the  downward  progress  of  the  stone  and  lime.  These  dif- 
ficulties are  obviated  by  the  use  of  suitable  stone,  properly 
mixed  with  the  coke  and  evenly  distributed  in  the  kiln, 
and  by  the  withdrawal  of  lime  at  regular  intervals.  Should 
the  charge  "scaffold"  in  the  kiln,  it  can  only  be  broken 
down  by  the  withdrawal  of  a  considerable  quantity  of 
material  at  the  lime-doors  and  energetic  use  of  an  iron  bar 
at  the  "  peep-holes."  The  use  of  too  little  coke  or  the  too 
rapid  withdrawal  of  lime  results  in  an  undue  proportion  of 
underburned  or  raw  lime.  The  admission  of  too  little  air 
to  the  kiln  results  in  an  imperfect  combustion  and  an  excess 
of  carbonic  oxide  in  the  gas.  This  carbonic  oxide  not  only 
is  a  loss  of  carbon,  but,  if  carelessly  inhaled  by  the  work- 
men, may  result  in  serious  poisoning.  The  addition  of  too 
much  air  dilutes  the  gas.  This  may  result  from  leakage  in 
the  pipes,  careless  charging,  or  from  driving  the  gas-pump 
too  fast. 

The  following  table  contains  valuable  information  rela- 
tive to  the  quality  of  the  limestone: 

*•  Limestone  No.  3  was  used  in  a  sugar-bouse  and  caused 
much  trouble:  'scaffolding,'  difficulty  in  the  mechanical 
filtration,  incrustations  in  the  triple-effect  and  on  the 
vacuum-pan  coils.  No.  9  was  substituted  for  this  stone, 
and  these  difficulties  disappeared." 


*  Largely  based  on  a  report  by  F.  Dupont  and  J.  Delavierre,  Bulletin 
de  V Association  des  Chimistes  de  France,  9,  134. 


SUGAR-HOUSE    NOTES. 


313 


ANALYSES  OF  LIMESTONES  AND  COMMENTS  ON  THEIR 
COMPOSITION. 
(Messrs.  Gallois  and  Dupont,  Paris.) 


Substance. 

1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

Moisture 

Sand,  clay,  and  insoluble  matter 

4.10 
4.50 
1.20 
2.10 

0.37 

85.86 
0.95 
0.05 
0.87 

5.10 
5.15 
1.17 
1.75 

0.41 

85.12 
0.47 
0.06 
0.77 

% 
7.25 
4.90 
1.37 
3.30 

0.27 

81.67 
0.59 

oies 

4.15 
S.15 
1.05 
1.05 

0.17 

90.13 
0.75 
0.10 
0.45 

% 
4.17 
3.07 
0.97 

Soluble  silica     ." 

0  98 

Oxides  of  iron  and  alumina  ) 

0.19 

(FeaOa,  AljOs)                        j 

Carbonate  of  calcium  (CaCOg)  

Carbonate  of  magnesium  (MgCO^)  

Sodium  and  potassium  (Na,0,  KjO)  ... 
Undetermined 

88.65 
0.95 
0.01 
1  00 

100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

Substance. 


Moisture 

Sand,  clay,  and  insoluble  matter 

Organic  matter 

Soluble  silica 

Oxides  of  iron  and  alumina  ) 

(FeaOs.  AI2O3)  S 

Carbonate  of  calcium  (CaCOa) , 

Carbonate  of  magnesium  (MgCOs) . , 
Sodium  and  potassium  (NaaO,  K^O) 
Undetermined : 


6 

7 

8 

9 

% 
6.25 
8.17 
1.12 
0.64 

5.16 
2.25 
0.86 
0.56 

% 
0.52 
2.85 
0.30 
0.06 

% 
1.21 
0.55 
0.41 
0.20 

0.15 

0.20 

0.32 

0.23 

87.93 
0.50 

90.03 
0.45 

93.80 
1.81 

96.58 
0.50 

0.24 

"6!  39 

6;34 

6!  32 

100 

100 

100 

100 

10 

0.11 

0.27 
0.15 
0.03 


99.10 


0.34 


100 


Nos.  I,  2,  3,  4  are  bad,  Nos.  5,  6,  7  are  passable,  and 
Nos.  8,  ^,  10  are  excellent." 

In  the  examination  of  a  limestone  its  physical  condition 
as  well  as  its  chemical  composition  must  be  taken  into 
account.  The  stone  should  be  compact  and  hard,  thus 
reducing  the  quantity  of  fragments  and  the  risk  of  "scaf- 
folding" in  the  kiln. 

Excessive  moisture,  5  per  cent  or  more,  in  the  stone 
reduces  the  temperature  of  the  kiln  when  charging,  involv- 
ing an  imperfect  combustion  and  the  production  of  car- 
bonic oxide  (CO);  further,  such  stone  breaks  into  small 
pieces  under  the  influence  of  the  heat.  A  small  proportion 
of  water,  approximately  i  per  cent,  probably  facilitates  the 
decomposition  of  the  stone,  and  is  advantageous. 

Magnesium  is  not  objectionable,  so  far  as  the  operation 
of  the  kiln  is  concerned,  except  in  the  presence  of  silicates, 


214       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

but  introduces  difficulties  in  the  purification  of  the  juice 
and  forms  incrustations  on  the  heating-surfaces  of  the 
evaporating-apparatus.  It  forms  fusible  silicates  at  high 
temperatures,  and  thus  increases  the  tendency  to  "scaf- 
folding." The  objections  to  sulphate  of  calcium  are  prac- 
tically the  same  as  to  magnesium. 

The  objections  to  the  presence  of  silicates  are  as  indicated 
above,  in  the  formation  of  fusible  silicates  of  .lime  and 
magnesium.  Part  of  the  silica  passes  into  the  juice  with 
the  lime,  retards  the  filtration  with  the  presses  and  coats 
the  cloths  of  the  mechanica,!  filters,  to  their  detriment. 
Silica  also  forms  part  of  the  scale  on  the  heating-surfaces. 
Less  harm  results  from  this  substance  in  hard  limestones 
than  from  that  in  soft  stone;  hence,  if  the  stone  be  hard 
and  compact,  a  larger  content  of  silica  is  admissible  than 
in  a  soft  stone. 

When  necessarily  using  stone  of  comparatively  poor 
quality,  the  best  obtainable  coke  should  be  employed. 

189.  Granulation  of  the  Sugar  in  tltc 
Vacuum-pan. — An  excessive  alkalinity  or  an  excess  of 
lime  salts  in  the  sirups  causes  the  "strike"  to  boil  slowly 
or  heavily.  When  the  difficulty  is  due  to  the  alkalinity, 
the  addition  of  sufficient  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  to 
nearly  neutralize  the  massecuite,  and  careful  supervision 
of  the  "  saturation  "  with  carbonic  acid  or  sulphurous  acid, 
is  usually  a  satisfactory  remedy.  Excessive  alkalinity  of 
the  sirup  may  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of  superphos- 
phate of  calcium,  followed  by  filtration,  to  remove  the 
precipitate,  or  the  sirup  may  be  nearly  neutralized  with 
dilute  hydrochloric  acid.  The  former  method  is  prefer- 
able. The  author  was  once  present  in  a  French  sugar- 
house  when  the  pan-man  reported  that  "the  strike  would 
not  boil."  The  chemist  determined  the  alkalinity  of  the 
massecuite  in  the  pan  and  calculated  the  quantity  of  acid 
required  to  nearly  neutralize  it,  then  added  dilute  sulphuric 
acid,  hydrochloric  acid  not  being  readily  obtainable.  The 
strike  was  completed  without  further  difficulty,  though  the 
yield  of  sugar  was  diminished  by  the  treatment. 

Should  the  difficulty  be  due  to  excess  of  lime  salts,  they 
may  be  decomposed  by  the  addition  of  a  vegetable  oil  or 


SUGAR-HOUSE   NOTES.  21-^ 

carbonate  of  sodium.  The  purification  of  the  juice  should 
be  carefully  controlled,  so  that  it  may  rarely  be  necessary 
to  adopt  one  of  these  remedies. 

Difficulty  in  boiling  the  massecuite  may  also  arise  from 
a  large  proportion  of  organic  matter,  not  sugar.  In  this 
event  the  only  remedy  is  to  increase  the  proportion  of 
lime  used  in  the  first  carbonatation. 

190.  Second  and  Third  Masseciiites,  etc.— 
There  is  occasionally  a  tendency  in  massecuites,  boiled  tvj 
"string-proof,"  to  foam  in  the  crystallizing-tanks,  or,  as 
this  is  usually  termed  by  the  workmen,  to  "boil  over." 
This  has  been  attributed  to  various  causes  (see  also  page 
200).  It  is  often  charged  to  reducing  the  alkalinity  of  the 
juice  in  the  first  carbonatation  too  low.  Caustic  soda  may 
be  used  to  remedy  the  alkalinity.  Overheating  of  the 
massecuite  in  the  pan  or  in  the  hot-room  is  supposed  to 
often  be  the  cause  of  the  difficulty.  The  usual  remedies 
are  to  sprinkle  water  or  caustic  soda  solution  on  the  surface 
of  the  massecuite. 

191.  Gray  Sugar. — A  series  of  experiments,  by 
Herzfeld,^  shows  that  the  gray  or  reddish-gray  color,  which 
is  sometimes  observed  in  raw  sugars,  is  due  to  the  solution 
of  ferric  and  ferrous  oxides  in  the  juice,  in  the  presence  of 
which,  during  the  saturation  with  sulphurous  acid,  the 
sugar  is  discolored.  Gray  sugar,  as  a  class,  is  acid  to 
phenolphthalein;  this  discoloration  is  not  noticeable  in  the 
products  when  the  liquors  are  kept  alkaline.  Certain 
sugars,  obtained  when  using  dry  lime  in  the  defecation,  gave 
unsatisfactory  results.  The  alkalinity  of  the  dry. products 
was  not  determined.  That  of  the  sirups  was  determined 
with  rosolic  acid  as  an  indicator,  the  use  of  which  led  to 
great  errors,  since  juice  apparently  alkaline  was  in  reality 
acid,  and  therefore  dissolved  ferric  and  ferrous  oxides. 
When  the  sugar  is  gray  its  color  may  be  remedied  by  cover- 
ing it  with  strongly  alkaline  sirup.  The  "graying"  of  raw 
sugar  is  attributed  by  Munier'  to  the  formation  of  a  double 
sulphate  of  iron  and  potassium.  The  sulphur  of  this  double 
salt  is  chiefly  derived  from  the  decomposition  of  albumin. 

*  Zet'i.  Rube»zticker-Ind.,  1896,  46,  i. 

^  Deutsche  Zucker.-Ind.,  1895,  ^^1  1744?  Journ.  Soc.  Chem,  Ind.,  16,  42. 


216      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAE-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


SPECIAL   REAGENTS. 

192.  Soxhlet's  Solution.  —  In  Soxhlet's  method 
two  solutions  are  employed,  prepared  as  follows  : 

(A)  Dissolve  34.639  grams  of  copper  sulphate  in  water 
and  dilute  to  500  cc. 

(B)  Dissolve  173  grams  tartrate  of  soda  and  potash 
(Rochelle  salt)  in  water,  add  51.6  grams  of  caustic  soda  dis- 
solved in  water  and  dilute  the  solution  to  500  cc. 

193.  Solclaiiii's  Solution. — Dissolve  40  grams  ot 
sulphate  of  copper  and  40  grams  of  carbonate  of  sodium 
separately  in  water  ;  mix  ;  collect  the  precipitate  on  a  filter 
and  wash  with  cold  water.  Transfer  the  precipitate  to  a 
large  flask  fitted  with  a  reflux  condenser ;  a  long  glass 
tube  will  answer  for  this  purpose.  Add  approximately  416 
grams  of  bicarbonate  of  potassium  and  1400  cc.  distilled 
water ;  heat  on  a  water-bath  or  a  hot-plate  several  hours, 
or  until  the  evolution  of  carbonic  acid  ceases.  When  no 
more  carbonic  acid  is  given  off,  filter  the  solution  and  boi) 
the  filtrate!  a  few  minutes,  and  dilute  it  to  2000  cc.  Th© 
specific  gravity  of  the  solution  should  be  approximately 
1. 185.  Solutions  to  be  treated  with  Soldaini's  reagent 
should  be  boiled  in  case  they  contain  ammonia,  to  insure 
freedom  from  this  substance.  Check  this  solution  as  indi- 
cated in  175. 

194.  Fehling's  Solution.— The  formula  for  Feh' 
ling's  solution  is  as  follows : 

34.64  grams  of  pure  crystalline  copper  sulphate  ; 
100.00  grams  neutral  potassium  tartrate. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  160  cc.  distilled  water  ; 
dissolve  the  neutral  potassic  tartrate  in  600  to  700  cc. 
caustic-soda  solution,  specific  gravity  1.12,  equivalent  to 
approximately  a  14-per-cent  solution  by  volume  ;  add  the 
copper   solution    to   the   alkali,   stirring   thoroughly   after 


SPECIAL   REAGEIfTS.  217 

each  addition  ;  make  up  to  looo  cc.  at  the  temperature  at 
which  the  litre  flask  was  graduated.  Check  this  solution 
as  indicated  in  195. 

Fehling's  solution  decomposes  readily  on  exposure  to 
strong  light.  The  author  prefers  the  following  modifica- 
tion by  Violette  for  commercial  work. 

195.  Violette's  Solution.— This  solution  should 
be  prepared  in  small  quantities  at  a  time,  since  it  is  liable 
to  deposit  oxide  of  copper,  even  in  the  cold,  on  long  expos- 
ure to  light.  To  prepare  this  solution,  use  the  following 
quantities  of  the  reagents  : 

34.64    crams    chemically    pure    crystallized    sulphate    of 

copper ; 
187.00  grams  commercially  pure  tartrate  of  soda  and  pot. 

ash  (Rochelle  salt)  ; 
78.00  grams  commercially  pure  caustic  soda. 

Dissolve  the  copper  sulphate  in  140  cc.  water,  and  add  it 
slowly  to  the  solution  of  Rochelle  salt  and  caustic  soda, 
taking  care  to  thoroughly  stir  the  solution  after  each  addi- 
tion ;  dilute  to  one  litre. 

The  copper  sulphate  should  be  carefully  examined  for 
impurities.  If  the  salt  be  impure  it  must  be  dissolved  and 
recrystallized  repeatedly.  The  crystals  must  be  finely 
powdered  and  dried  between  filter-papers  before  weigh- 
ing. 

If  it  be  desirable  to  make  up  a  large  quantity  of  Fehling 
or  Violette  solution,  all  risk  of  deposition  of  the  copper 
oxide  in  the  cold  may  be  avoided  by  making  a  separate 
solution  of  the  copper  sulphate.  Dissolve  the  alkali  and 
dilute  to  one  litre  ;  dissolve  the  copper  and  make  up  to 
exactly  one  litre.  For  the  analytical  work  take  equal  vol- 
umes of  the  solutions.  Check  this  solution  with  invert- 
sugar  (204)  or  dextrose  under  the  conditions  adopted  for 
the  analysis.  The  copper  in  10  cc.  of  this  solution  should 
be  reduced  by  0.05  gram  invert-sugar. 

196.  Normal  Solutions.—"  Normal  solutions,  as  a 
general  rule,  are  prepared  so  that  one  litre  shall  contain 
the  hydrogen  equivalent  of  the  active  reagent  weighed  in 
grams   (H  =  i)"  (Sutton).     Thus,    normal    sulphuric   acid 


218       HANDBOOK   FOR  SliaAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

contains  49.043  grams  H2SO4  per  litre  ;  normal  hydrochloric 
acid,  36.458  grams  HCl  per  litre,  etc.  Half-normal,  one- 
fifth  normal,  and  one-tenth  normal  (decinormal)  solutions 
are  frequently  used,  and  are  prepared  by  diluting  the  nor- 
mal solutions.     Normal,  half-normal,  one-fifth   normal  so- 

N    N     N 
lutions,  etc.,  are  usually  written  as  follows:  N,  — ,  — ,  — , 

2     5     10 

etc.  These  solutions  are  prepared  and  checked  as  indi- 
cated in  the  following  sections. 

197.  Standard  Hydrochloric  Acid.— The  re- 
agent acid  has  usually  a  specific  gravity  of  1.20,  approxi- 
mately. Acid  of  this  specific  gravity  contains  40.78  per 
cent  of  hydrochloric  acid  {see  table,  page  272);  hence,  a 
little  less  than  100  grams  of  this  acid  is  required  to  con- 
tain the  36.458  grams  necessary  to  form  a  normal  solution. 
It  is  advisable  to  dilute  a  somewhat  larger  quantity  of  the 
acid,  e.^.,  80  cc.  to  1000  cc,  with  distilled  water,  rather 
than  to  attempt  to  closely  approximate  the  correct  quantity. 
Titrate  this  solution  with  a  normal  alkali  solution  (201), 
adding  the  acid  from  a  burette  to  10  cc.  of  the  alkali  solu- 
tion, using  cochineal  or  other  suitable  indicator  (215). 
The  preliminary  titration  should,  most  conveniently,  show 
the  acid  solution  to  be  too  strong;  for  example,  suppose 
9.6  cc.  of  the  acid  solution  is  required  to  neutralize  10  cc. 
of  the  alkali  solution,  then  to  9.6  X  100  =  960  cc.  of  the 
acid  must  be  added  1000  —  960  cc.  =  40  cc.  of  water  to  make 
one  solution  exactly  neutralize  the  other.  The  solution 
should  be  further  checked  by  a  determination  of  the 
chlorine,  preferably  by  the  method  described  on  page  169. 
This  acid  is  a  convenient  one  for  use  in  preparing  very 
accurate  standard  alkali  and  acid  solutions,  since  its 
strength  may  be  ascertained  with  ease  ajid  accuracy  by  the 
chlorine  determination.  The  half-normal  acid  is  a  con- 
venient strength,  and  should  contain  17.725  grams  of 
chlorine  per  litre. 

I  cc.  normal  hydrochloric  acid  =  .036458  gram  HCl 

•    =  .03545      "     CI 

,=  .02804  "  CaO 
=  .05181  *'  SrO 
=  .07672   **  .BaO. 


SPECIAL  REAGEKTS.  219 

198.  Standard  Oxalic  Acid.— This  is  the  simplest 
of  the  normal  solutions  to  prepare,  and  when  strictly  pure 
oxalic  acid  can  be  obtained  it  may  be  used  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  all  the  standard  alkali  and  acid  solutions. 

Repeatedly  crystallize  the  purest  obtainable  oxalic  acid, 
from  water  solution.  Dry  the  crystals  thoroughly  in  the 
air  at  ordinary  temperatures.  Reject  all  crystals  that 
show  indications  of  efflorescence.  Dissolve  63,034  grams  of 
this  acid  in  distilled  water  and  dilute  to  looo  cc.  to  prepare 
the  normal  solution,  or,  preferably,  dry  the  powdered  acid 
at  100°  C.  to  constant  weight  and  use  45.018  grams  in  pre- 
paring the  normal  solution.  It  is  advisable  to  employ 
weaker  solutions,  usually  the  one-tenth  normal  acid.  This 
should  be  prepared  from  the  normal  solution  as  required, 
since  the  latter  keeps  better,  provided  it  is  not  exposed  to 
direct  sunlight. 

I  cc.  normal  oxalic  acid  =  .06303  gram  H2C2O4.2H2O. 

199.  Standard  Sulphuric  Acid.— Add  approxi- 
mately 28  cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  distilled 
water,  cool  the  solution,  and  dilute  to  1000  cc.  Standard- 
ize by  titration  with  normal  alkali. 

I  cc.  normal  sulphuric  acid  =  .049043  gram  H2SO4 
=  .02804        "      CaO 
=  .05181        "      SrO 
=  .07672        ••      BaO. 

200.  Standard  Sulphuric  Acid  for  the  Con- 
trol of  the  Carbonatation. — Add  approximately  21 
cc.  of  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  to  distilled  water,  cool 
the  solution,  and  dilute  to  1000  cc.  Titrate  this  solution 
with  a  normal  soda  or  potash  solution,  using  phenolphtha- 
lein  as  an  indicator.  Dilute  the  acid  so  that  14  cc.  [will 
be  required  to  neutralize  10  cc.  of  the  normal  alkali 
(201). 

I  cc.  this  standard  acid  =  .035  gram  H2SO4 
=  .02       "      CaO. 

It  is  usual  to  add  the  phenolphthalein  to  this  solution 
before  dilution  to  1000  cc. 

201.  Standard  Alkali   Solutions.  —  Ammonium 


220       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

hydrate  (NH4HO),  caustic  soda  (NaHO),  and  caustic  potash 
(KHO)  are  used  in  preparing  the  alkali  solutions.  The 
normal  soda  or  potash  solutions  are  used,  but  the  ammonia 
should  be  weaker,  preferably  decinormal,  or,  for  Sidersky's 
method  for  reducing-sugars,  half-normal. 

Dissolve  42  grams  of  chemically  pure  caustic  soda  in 
water,  in  preparing  the  normal  reagent,  cool  the  solu- 
tion, dilute  to  1000  cc,  and  standardize  by  titration,  against 
a  normal  acid.  In  preparing  the  potash  solution,  use  58 
grams  of  chemically  pure  caustic  potash.  The  table,  page 
274,  is  convenient  for  use  in  standardizing  the  ammonia 
solution.  Dilute  the  ammonia  to  approximately  the  re- 
quired strength,  and  standardize  by  titration  with  deci- 
normal or  half-normal  acid,  as  may  be  required,  using 
cochineal  as  an  indicator,  or  for  Sidersky's  method  for 
reducing-sugars,  use  sulphate  of  copper  as  an  indicator,  as 
directed  on  page  88. 

I  cc.  normal  caustic-soda  {Solution  =  .0401  gram  NaOH 

=  .03105    "  NaaO 

1  cc.  normal  caustic  potash  solution  =  .056       "  KHO 

=  .04711  •'  KaO 

I  cc.  half-normal  ammonia  solution  =  .00853   "  NHs 

=  .01754  "  (NHOHO 

I  cc.  decinormal  ammonia  solution  =  .00171  "  NHs 

=  .00351   "  (NH^HO 

Phenolphthalein  cannot  be  used  as  an  indicator  with 
ammonia. 

202.  Decinormal  Permanganate  of  Potas- 
sium.—Dissolve  3.16  grams  of  chemically  pure  and  dry 
permanganate  of  potassium  (KMn04)  in  distilled  water, 
and  dilute  to  1000  cc.  This  solution  is  conveniently  checked 
by  titration  with  decinormal  oxalic  acid.  To  10  cc.  of  deci- 
normal oxalic  acid  add  several  volumes  of  water  and  a  few  cc. 
of  dilute  sulphuric  acid.  Warm  the  solution  to  approxi- 
mately 60°  C,  and  add  the  permanganate  solution  little  by 
little.  Discontinue  the  addition  of  the  permanganate  as 
soon  as  the  solution  acquires  a  faint  pink-  or  rose-color. 
The  temperature    of  the  solution  must   be   maintained  at 


SPECIAL  REAGENTS.  221 

approximately  60°  C,  and  a  little  time  must  be  allowed  for 
the  reaction.  In  reducing-sugar  determinations,  check  the 
permanganate,  as  indicated  on  page  90. 

Permanganate  of  potassium  solution  should  be  preserved 
in  a  tightly  stoppered  bottle,  and  should  be  checked  from 
time  to  'time.  The  appearance  of  a  sediment  indicates  a 
change  in  the  solution.  It  is  simpler  to  determine  a  factoi 
from  time  to  time,  rather  than  attempt  to  maintain  the 
solution  strictly  decinormal. 

I  cc.  decinormal  permanganate  of  )  =  .0316  gram   KMn04 
potash  J  =  .00636    "       Cu. 

203.  Permanganate  Solution  for  Reducing- 
sugrar  Determinations.— This  solution  should  be  of 
such  strength  that  i  cc.  is  equivalent  to  .oi  gram  of 
copper.  Dissolve  4.9763  grams  of  permanganate  of  potas- 
sium in  distilled  water  and  dilute  to  1000  cc.  This  solu- 
tion should  be  checked  by  a  reducing-sugar  determination 
in  material  of  known  composition. 

204.  Invert-sugar  Solution.— Borntrager^  recom- 
mends the  following  method  of  preparing  an  invert-sugar 
solution  for  checking  the  reagents  used  in  reducing-sugar 
determinations :  Dissolve  2.375  grams  pure  sucrose  in 
water,  dilute  to  100  cc,  and  add  10  cc.  hydrochloric  acid  of 
1. 188  specific  gravity.  Let  the  mixture  stand  overnight  in 
the  cold.  Neutralize  with  sodium  hydrate  and  dilute  to 
1000  cc. 

20  cc.  of  this  solution  contains  .05  gram  invert-sugar,  and 
should  reduce  the  copper  in  10  cc.  of  Violette  or  Fehling 
solution. 

The  inversion  may  also  be  conducted  under  the  tem- 
perature conditions  given  in  89  in  preparing  invert  sugar; 
or  pure  dextrose  may  be  substituted  for  it  in  standardizing 
the  alkaline  copper  reagents. 

205.  Soap  Solution  for  Clark's  Test  and  Alka- 
linity Determinations.— Courtonne  recommends  the 
following  method  of  preparing  the  soap  solution,  which 
he  states  is  quite  permanent  :  To  28  grams  or  33  cc.  of 
olive-oil  or  oil  of  sweet  almonds  add  10  cc.  caustic  soda 

*  2^it,  Angew.  Chent.^  1892,  333, 


233      HAKDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSB   CHEMISTS. 

solution  of  35°  Baume,  and  lo  cc.  90  to  95  per  cent  alcohol ; 
heat  the  mixture  a  few  minutes  on  the  boiling  water-bath 
to  saponify  the  oil,  then  add  800  to  900  cc.  of  60  per  cent 
alcohol  and  agitate  to  dissolve  the  soap.  Filter  the  solu- 
tion into  a  1000  cc.  flask,  cool,  and  complete  the  volume  to  i 
litre  with  60  per  cent  alcohol.  The  solution  should  be 
standardized  as  directed  in  82. 

Sidersky  recommends  the  following  solution  :  Dissolve 
50  grams  of  white  Marseilles  soap  in  800  grams  of  90  per 
cent  alcohol,  filter  and  add  500  cc.  distilled  water.  Standard- 
ize as  in  82. 

Thfe  following  is  Clark's  method  as  described  by  Sut- 
ton :  "  Rub  together  150  parts  lead  plaster  (Emplast.  Plumbi 
of  the  druggists)  and  40  parts  dry  potassic  carbonate. 
When  fairly  mixed  add  a  little  methylated  spirit  and  tritu- 
rate to  a  uniform  creamy  mixture.  Allow  to  stand  some 
hours,  then  throw  on  a  filter  and  wash  several  times  with 
methylated  spirit.  Dilute  the  strong  soap  solution  with  a 
mixture  of  one  volume  of  distilled  water  and  two  volumes 
of  methylated  spirit  (considering  the  soap  solution  as 
spirit)  until  14.25  cc.  are  required  to  form  a  permanent 
lather  with  50  cc.  standard  calcic  chloride,  the  experiment 
being  performed  as  in  determining  the  hardness  of  water. 
To  prepare  the  calcic  chloride  solution  :  Dissolve  0.2  gram 
pure  crystallized  calcite  in  dilute  hydrochloric  acid  in  a 
platinum  dish.  Evaporate  to  dryness  on  the  water-bath, 
dissolve  with  water  and  again  evaporate  to  dryness,  repeat- 
ing this  several  times.  Lastly,  dissolve  in  distilled  water 
and  complete  the  volume  to  1000  cc." 

206.  Preparation  of  Pure  Sugar.^-The  following 
method  of  purifying  sugar,  for  use  in  testing  polariscopes. 
was  adopted  by  the  Fourth  International  Congress  of  Ap- 
plied Chemistry,  Paris,  1900,  on  the  recommendation  of  the 
committee  appointed  with  a  view  to  unifying  the  methods 
of  sugar  analysis  used  in  various  countries  :  Prepare  a  hot 
saturated  solution  of  the  purest  commercial  sugar  obtain- 
able, and  precipitate  the  sugar  with  absolute  ethel  alcohol. 
Spin  the  precipitated  sugar  in  a  centrifugal  and  wash  it 
with  alcohol.  Redissolve  the  sugar  and  again  precipitate 
and  wash  it  as  before.     The  sugar  so  obtained  should  be 


SPECIAL  EEAGENTS.  /         223 

dried  between  pieces  of  blotting-paper  and  preserved  in  a 
stoppered  glass  jar.  The  moisture  contained  in  the  sugar 
shouldjbe  determined  and  proper  allowance  made  for  it 
when  weighing  the  sample  for  analysis. 

If  the  sugar  be  of  beet  or  unknown  origin,  purify  it  by  the 
following  method  recommended  by  Wiley :  Dissolve  70 
parts  of  sugar  in  30  parts  of  water,  then  precipitate  the 
sugar  from  this  solution  at  60°  C.  with  an  equal  volume 
of  96  per  cent  alcohol.  Decant  the  supernatant  liquor 
while  still  warm,  and  wash  the  sugar  with  strong  warm 
alcohol.  The  raffinose  is  removed  in  the  alcohol  solution. 
Finally  wash  the  sugar  with  absolute  alcohol  and  dry  over 
sulphuric  acid  in  a  desiccator. 

207.  Sllbacetate  of  Lead. — Dilute  Solution. — Heat, 
nearly  to  boiling,  for  about  half  an  hour,  430  grams  of  neu- 
tral acetate  of  lead,  130  grams  of  litharge,  and  1000  cc.  of 
water.  Cool,  settle,  and  decant  the  clear  solution  and  re- 
duce this  to  54.3°  Brix  with  cold,  recently  boiled,  distilled 
water. 

This  is  the  solution  recommended  for  use  with  Pellet's 
aqueous  methods  for  the  direct  analysis  of  the  beet. 

Concentrated  Solution. — Proceed  as  above,  except  use  only 
250  cc.  of  water. 

Late  investigations  show  that  highly  basic  solutions  of 
subacetate  of  lead  should  not  be  employed. 

208.  Preparation  of  Bone-black  for  Decolor- 
izing' Solutions. — Powder  the  bone-black  obtained  from 
the  sugar-house  filters,  or  otherwise,  and  heat  it  several 
hours  with  hydrochloric  or  nitric  acid  to  dissolve  the  min- 
eral matter.  Decant  the  acid  and  wash  the  bone-black 
with  water  until  the  washings  no  longer  turn  blue  litmus- 
paper  red.  Dry  the  powdered  char  in  an  air-bath,  at  about 
150"  C.     Preserve  in  a  tightly  stoppered  bottle.  pi 

Vivien  advises  digesting  the  bone-black,  reduced  to 
a  fine  powder,  with  a  large  excess  of  acid  during  several 
days;  the  char  is  then  thoroughly  washed  with  water,  and 
finally  with  dilute  ammonia,  and  thoroughly  dried.  The 
dry  ch^r  is  calcine^i^ft^i vessel  from  which  the  air  is  ex- 
cluded. .  .ift  .,jU  J 


224      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS.  1 

209.  Preparation  of  Hydrate  of  Alumina.— 

Hydrate  of  alumina,  frequently  termed  '*  alumina  cream,'* 
may  be  used  instead  of  lead  for  decolorizing  sugar  solu- 
tions or  for  removing  an  opalescence.  To  a  moderately 
concentrated  solution  of  common  alum  in  water  add  am- 
monia in  slight  excess.  Wash  the  resulting  precipitate  by 
decantation  until  the  wash-water  no  longer  reacts  alkaline 
with  litmus-paper.  This  precipitate  is  employed  in  a  moist 
state.  After  adding  the  hydrate  of  alumina  to  the  solu- 
tion to  be  examined,  it  should  stand  a  few  minutes,  with 
frequent  shaking.  A  little  lead  may  sometimes  be  advan- 
tageously employed  with  the  alumina. 

210.  Litmus  Solution.  —  Powder  the  litmus  and 
treat  it  several  times  with  boiling-hot  8o-per-cent  alcohol 
to  separate  the  coloring  matter  soluble  in  this  reagent. 
Reject  the  alcoholic  solution,  boil  the  residue  with  distilled 
water,  and  filter.  Divide  the  filtrate  into  two  equal  parts  ; 
carefully  neutralize  one  with  sulphuric  acid,  then  mix 
the  two  portions  together.  Again  divide  into  two  parts, 
neutralize  one,  and  mix  as  before.  Repeat  these  opera- 
tions until  the  solution  is  exactly  neutral;  preserve  in  an 
open  bottle. 

211.  liitmus-papers. — Take  a  portion  of  the  above 
solution  and  divide  into  two  parts.  To  one  part  add  suffi- 
cient sulphuric  acid  to  render  it  faintly  acid  ;  to  the  other 
portion  add  caustic-soda  solution  to  faint  alkalinity.  Soak 
strips  of  Swedish  filter-paper  in  these  solutions,  using  the 
acid  for  red  paper  and  the  alkaline  for  the  blue.  Dry  the 
strips  in  a  room  free  from  acid  or  alkaline  vapors.  Pre- 
serve in  an  unstopperect  bottle,  out  of  contact  with  strong 
sunlight. 

212.  Turmeric-paper.— Treat  the  finely  powdered 
turmeric  first  with  water,  to  dissolve  out  impurities,  then 
with  alcohol,  to  extract  the  coloring  matter.  Soak  strips  of 
Swedish  filter-paper  in  the  alcoholic  solution,  and  dry  them 
out  of  contact  with  the  laboratory  fumes.  Preserve  the 
papers  in  a  stoppered  bottle. 

213.  Phenolphthalein  Solution.— Dissolve  i  gram 
of  phenolphthalein  in  lOO  cc.  of  dilute  alcohol.     This  solu- 


SPECIAL   REAGENTS.  225 

tion  is  colorless  when  acid  and  red  in  the  presence  of  al- 
kalis. It  should  be  neutralized  with  dilute  caustic  soda  or 
potash.  Phenolphthalein  is  not  applicable  in  the  presence 
of  ammonia.  This  indicator  is  considered  the  most  suitable 
for  beet-sugar  work  by  Herzfeld,  Claassen,  and  Henke.* 

214.  Coralliii  or  Rosolic  Acid  Solution.— Digest 
equal  quantities  of  carbolic,  sulphuric,  and  oxalic  acids  to- 
gether for  some  time  at  150°  C  ;  dilute  the  mixture  with 
water,  saturate  the  free  acid  with  calcium  carbonate,  and 
evaporate  the  mixture  to  dryness  ;  extract  the  color  with 
alcohol  and  nearly  neutralize  the  solution  (Sutton):  or,  pre- 
pare a  saturated  solution  of  commercial  corallin  in  90^  al- 
cohol, and  nearly  neutralize  with  an  alkali.  This  solution 
is  more  permanent  than  litmus,  but  otherwise  has  no  advan- 
tages over  the  latter. 

215.  Cochineal  Solution.— Extract  3  grams  of  pul- 
verized cochineal  with  50  cc.  strong  alcohol  and  200  cc. 
water,  with  occasional  agitation,  for  a  day  or  two.  Filter 
off,  and  neutralize  the  extract. 

216.  Phenacetolin  Solution. — Dissolve  2  grams 
of  the  reagent  in  looo  cc.  of  strong  alcohol. 

217.  Nessler's  Solution.— Dissolve  62.5  grams  of 
potassium  iodide,  KI,  in  250  cc.  of  water.  Set  aside  about 
10  cc.  of  this  solution  ;  add  to  the  larger  portion  a  solution 
of  mercuric  chloride,  HgCla,  until  the  precipitate  formed 
no  longer  redissolves.  Add  the  10  cc.  of  the  iodide 
solution  ;  then  continue  the  addition  of  mercuric  chloride 
very  cautiously  until  a  slight  permanent  precipitate  forms. 
Dissolve  150  grams  of  caustic  potash  in  150  cc.  water,  cool, 
and  add  gradually  to  the  above  solution.  Dilute  the  mix- 
ture to  I  litre. 


*  An  extensive  paper  on  indicators  for  sugar-house  purposes  is  published 
by  Henke  in  Cent.  Blatt./.  d.  Zuckerind.,  18^4,  Nos.  11  and  12  ;  abstract 
in  Bulletin  de  V Association  des  Chitnistes,  13,  4g2. 


r 


226       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


REAGENTS. 

218.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  IMPURITIES  PRESENT  IN  COM- 
MERCIAL REAGEI^TS  ;  ALSO,  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SOLU'HONS, 
ETC.,  RECOMMENDED. 


Name. 


Bulphuric  Acid 
(Oil  of  Vitriol). 


Nitric  Acid. 


Hydrochloric 

Acid 
OHuriaticAcid). 

Nitro-hydro- 
chloric  Acid. 
(Aqua  regia.) 


Acetic  Acid. 


Sulphurous 
Acid. 


Oxalic  Acid. 


Sulphuretted 
Hydrogen. 

Sodic  Hydrate 

or  Potass  ic 

Hydrate. 


Ammonic  Hy- 
drate. 


Baric  Hydrate. 


H2SO4. 

HNOa. 
HCl. 


H^CaO,. 


HaSOj 


LH,Ca04, 
HaS. 


NaHO, 
KHO. 


NH4HO. 
BaOaH,. 


Pb,  As,  Fe,  Ca, 
HNO3,  Na04. 


II2SO4,  HCl. 


CI,  FejCl,, 

HaS04,  SO2, 

As. 


HaSO*,  HCl, 
Cu,  Pb,  Fe,  Ca. 


Fe,  K,  Na,  Ca. 


Al,  SiOa,  phos- 
phates, sul- 
phates, and 
chlorides. 


Sulphate,  chlo- 
ride, carbon- 
ate, tarry 
matters. 


Strength  of  Solution,  etc. 


Concentrated  and  dilute. 
To  dilute  pour  1  part  acid 
by  measure  into  9  parts 
distilled  water.  Use  por- 
celain dish. 

Concentrate  and  dilute. 
To  dilute  add  1  part  acid 
to  9  parts  water. 

Concentrated  and  dilute. 
Dilute  =  1  part  acid  to  9 
parts  water. 

Prepare  when  required 
by  adding  4  parts  hydro- 
chloric to  1  part  nitric 
acid.  Use  concentrated 
acids. 

Concentrated  and  dilute. 
Dilute  =  1  part  pure  gla- 
cial acetic  acid  to  1  part 
water. 

To  charcoal,  in  a  flask, 
add  concentrated  H2SO4. 
Boil,  wash  the  gas  gen- 
erated by  passing  it 
through  water,  and  finally 
pass  it  into  very  cold 
water.  Preserve  the  so- 
lution in  tightly -stoppered 
bottles. 

Dissolve  1  pai't  of  crys' 
tallized  acid  in  9  parts  dis- 
tilled water. 

Use  in  gaseous  state  or 
in  water  solution.  Wash 
the  gas. 

Dissolve  the  stick  soda 
or  potash  in  20  parts  wa- 
ter. (Soda  is  less  expen- 
sive, and  will  usually  an- 
swer for  most  purposes  in 
place  of  potash.) 

Stronger  water  of  am- 
monia (.96  specific  gravity) 
and  ^  above  strength. 

Dissolve  1  part  of  the 
crystals  in  20  parts  water  ; 
filter,  and  preserve  in 
Stoppered  bottle. 


REAGENTSo 


227 


REAaENTS.— Conttnwed. 


Name. 

Syhbol. 

IMPURITIBS. 

Strength  of  Solution, 

ETC. 

CalclcHydrate. 

CaOaHj. 

Slake  lime  in  water, 
filter  off  the  solution, 
and  preserve  out  of  con- 
tact with  the  air. 

Sodic  Ammo- 

Na(NH4)HP04. 

Dry   and   powder   the 

nic  Hydric 

salt.    It  may  be  made  as 

Phosphate. 

follows:  Dissolve  7  parts 

(Microcosmic 

disodic  hydric  phosphate 

Salt.) 

(Na2HP04)  and  1  part 
ammonic  chloride  in  2 
parts  boiling  water,  fil- 
ter, and  separate  the  re- 
quired salt  by  crystalli- 
zation. Purify  by  recrys- 
tallization. 

Sodic  Biborate. 

Na,B40,. 

Heat  to  expel  water 
of  crystallization  and 
powder. 

Sodic 

NaaCO,. 

Chlorides, 

Use  the  powdered  salt 

Carbonate. 

phosphates, 

sulphates, 

silicates. 

or  dissolve  in  5  parts 
water. 

Ammonic  Sul- 

(NH4)2S04. 

Dissolve    1  part  in   5 

phate. 

parts  water. 

■       Ammonic 

(NH4)C1. 

Fe.   Purify  the 

Dissolve   1   part  in   5 

tftr:  Chloride. 

commercial 
salt  by  the  ad- 
dition of  am- 
monia; filter. 
Neutralize  fil- 
trate with  HCl; 
concentrate 

and 
recrystallize. 

parts  water. 

Ammonic 

(NH4)N0,. 

Saturated  solution. 

Nitrate. 

Ammonic 

(NH4)aCa04. 

Purify  by  re- 

Dissolve  1  part  in  30 

Oxalate. 

crystalliz.ition . 

parts  water. 

Ammonic 

(NH4)aC03. 

Pb,  Fe, 

Dissolve  1    part   in   4 

Carbonate. 

sulphates, 
chlorides. 

parts  water,  and  add  1 

part   ammonia,   specific 

gravity  .880. 

Ammonic  mo- 

Dissolve   the    salt    in 

lybdate. 

strong  ammonia,  decant 
the  clear  solution  slowly 
into  strong  nitric  acid, 
stirring    thoroughly  till 

the     precipitate     redis- 

solves. 

Ammonic  sul- 

(NH4)aS. 

Saturate  3  parts  am- 
monia  with    HjS,  then 

phide. 

add  2  parts  ammonia. 

Yellow 

(NH4)aSa 

Prepared  by  dissolving 
sulphur  in  ammonic  sul- 

Ammonic Sul- 

phide. 

phide. 

Potassic  Sul- 

KaS04. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 

phate. 

parts  water. 

Potassic 

KI. 

lodate.  car- 

Dissolve  1  part  in  50 

Iodide. 

bonate. 

part.s  water. 

228       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 
REAGENTS.— Confintted. 


Name. 


Potassic 
Chromate. 

Potassic  Bi- 
chromate. 

Potassic  Ferri- 
cyanide. 


Potassic 
Ferrocyanide. 

Baric  Chloride. 


Baric  Nitrate. 

Baric 
Carbonate. 


Calcic  Chloride 


Calcic 
Sulphate. 


Magnesic 
Sulphate. 

Ferrous 
Sulphate. 

Ferric  Chloride 

Cobaltous 
Nitrate. 

Cupric 
Sulphate. 


Mercuric 
Chloride. 


Mercurous 
Nitrate. 


K3Cr04. 
KaCraOT. 
K,FeaCyi«. 

KiFeCy.. 

BaCl,. 


BaCNOg)^. 
BaCOa. 

CaCla. 
CaSO*. 

MgSO^. 

FeS04. 

FeaCl«. 
C0(N03)a. 

CUSO4. 


HgCla. 
Hg,(NO,),. 


Impurities. 


Sulphates. 


Purify  the 

commercial 

salt  by  passing 

H,S  through  it 

and 

crystallizing 


Fe. 


Fe,  Ni,  etc. 


Fe,  Zn. 


Strength  of  Solution,  etc. 


Dissolve    1    part    in   10 
parts  water. 

Dissolve    1    part    in    10 
parts  water. 


ve  1  part  m  12 
parts  water.  Better  to 
prepare  solution  when  re- 
quired. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  12 
parts  water,  or,  for  glu- 
cose work,  1  part  in  30 
parts  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 


Dissolve  1  part  in  15 
parts  water. 

Add  water  to  the  pow- 
dered carbonate  and  pre- 
serve in  salt-mouthed  bot- 
tle. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  5  parts 
water. 

Dissolve  as  much  of  the 
salt  as  possible  in  water 
(in  the  cold),  filter,  and 
preserve  the  filtrate. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  cold  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

For  sugar  work  purify 
by  repeated  crystalliza- 
tions.   Even  the  so-called 

C.  P."  salts  cannot  al- 
ways be  depended  upon. 
For  Fehling  solution  see 
page  216.  For  ordinary 
work  dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  30 
parts  water. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  20 
parts  water  acidulated 
with  1.2  part  nitric  acid. 
Filter  into  a  bottle  con- 
taining a  little  metallic 
mercury. 


ATOMIC   WEIGHTS. 


329 


RE  AGENTS. —Contmued, 


Name. 

Symbol. 

Impurities. 

Strength  of  Solution,  etc. 

Platinic 
Chloride. 

ptcu. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

Argentic 
Nitrate. 

AgNOs. 

Dissolve  1  part  in  10 
parts  water. 

Stannous 
Chloride. 

SnCla. 

Dissolve  pure  tin  in 
strong  HCl  in  the  presence 
of  platinum.  Dilute  with 
4  volumes  dilute  HCl. 
Keep  granulated  tin  in  the 

219.  ATOMIC   WEIGHTS— PARTIAL  LIST. 
(The  Constants  of  Nature— Fra,nk  Wigglesworth  Clarke.) 


Name. 

Sym- 
bol. 

Atomic  Wt. 

H=  1 

0  =  16 

Aluminum. 

Al 

26.91 

27.11 

Antimony.. 

Sb 

119.52 

120.43 

Arsenic  — 

As 

74.44 

75.01 

Barium... 

Ba 

136.39 

137.43 

Bismuth... 

Bi 

206.54 

208.11 

Boron 

B 

10.86 

10.95    1 

Bromine... 

Br 

79.34 

79.95 

Calcium  ... 

Ca 

39.76 

40.07 

Carbon .... 

C 

11.92 

12.01 

Chlorine... 

CI 

35.18 

35.45 

Chromium. 

Cr 

51.74 

52.14 

Cobalt 

Co 

58.49 

58.93 

Copper  — 

Cu 

63.12 

63.60 

Fluorine... 

Fl 

18.91 

18.06 

Gold 

Au 

195.74 

197.23 

Hydrogen.. 

H 

1.00 

1.008 

Iodine 

I 

125.89 

126.85 

Iron 

Fe 

55.60 

56.02 

Name. 


Lead  

Magnesium. 
Manganese. 

Mercury 

Nickel  

Nitrogen.... 

Oxygen 

Phosphorus 
Platinum..., 
Potassium . . 

Silicon 

Silver 

Sodium 

Strontium.. . 

Sulphur 

Tin 

Zinc 


Sym- 
bol. 


Pb 

Mg 

Mn 

Hg 

Ni 

N 

O 

P 

Pt 

K 

Si 

Ag 

Na 

Sr 

S 

Sn 

Zn 


Atomic  Wt. 


H=l     0=16 


24.10 
54.57 

198.49 
58.24 
13.93 
15.88 
30.79 

193.41 
38.82 
28.18 

107.11 
22.88 
86.95 
31.83 

118.15 
64.91 


206.92 
24.28 
54.99 

200.00 
58.69 
14.04 
16.00 
31.02 

194.89 
39.11 
28.40 

107.92 
23.05 
87.61 
32.07 

119.05 
65.41 


330       HANDBOOK   FOE  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


280.  COMPARISON  OF  WEIGHTS  AND  MEASURES. 
Measures  op  Weight. 


Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 


Ounce 
Avoirdupois. 


Troy  Grains. 


Milligram.. 
Centigram . 
Decigram. 
Gram 
Decagram . 
Hectogram . 
Kilogram... 


.01543 

.15433 

1.54332 

15.43316 


1  lb.  avoirdupois  =  453.593  grams. 
Measures  of  Length. 


Inches. 

Feet. 

Millimetre 

.03937 

.39371 

3.93708 

39.37079 

393.70790 

3937.07900 

39370  79000 

393707.90000 

.003281 

.032809 

328090 

Metre 

3.280899 
32  808992 

Hectometre  

828.089917 

3280.899167 

Myriametre 

32808  991667 

1  inch 


2 .  53995  centimetres.      1  foot  =  30 .  47945  centimetres. 
Measures  of  Capacity. 


Millilitre  (cubic  centimetre). 

Centilitre 

Decilitre 

Litre  (cubic  decimetre) 

Decalitre 

Hectolitre 

Kilolitre 

My  rialitre 


Cubic  Inches. 


.06103 
.61027 
6.10270 
61.02705 
610.2705 
6102.705 
61027.05 
610270.5 


Gallons  (231  cu.  in.). 


.002641 

.026414 

.26414 

2.6414 

26.414 

264.14 

2641.4 

t  =  28.3153  litres. 

1  cubic  inch  =  16.3862  cubic  centimetres.       1  cubic  foot 
1  gallon  (231  cu.  in.)  =  3.785  litres. 
Measures  of  Surface. 


Centiare,  square  metre 

Are,  100  square  metres 

Hectare,  10,000  sq.  metres.  . . 


SQUARE  Feet. 


10.7643 

1076.4293 

107642.9342 


Acres. 


.024711 
2  471143 


1  SQ.  inch  =  6.4514  sq.  centimetres.  1  sq.  foot  =  9.29  sq.  decimetres. 

1  acre  =  .4046  hectare. 


RELATIVE   VALUES   OF   DIFFEREKT  FUELS.      231 


831.  RELATIVE  VALUES  OF  DIFFERENT  FUELS.- (Haswell.) 


Description. 


Anthracites. 
Peach  Mountain,  Pa 
Beaver  Meadow 

Bituminous. 

Newcastle 

Pictou 

Liverpool 

Cannelton,  Ind 

Scot<3h 

Pine  wood,  dry 


a 

a^. 

i^s 

■^a 

1 

Si 

11 

S|5 

ill 

«8  t-  2 

M 

1^^ 
is- 

^i^ 

111 

sai 
sll 

m 

11 

III 

10.7 

1 

1 

.505 

.683 

.725 

9.88 

.923 

.982 

.207 

.748 

6 

8.66 

.809 

.776 

.595 

.887 

.346 

8.48 

.792 

.738 

.588 

.418 

1 

7.84 

.7m 

.663 

.581 

1 

.3.33 

7.34 

.686 

.616 

1 

.984 

.578 

6.95 

.649 

.625 

.521 

.499 

.649 

4.69 

.436 

.175 

.... 

16417 

.945 


.904 
.876 
.852 
.848 
.909 


222.  Testing  a  Burette.— The  method  of  testing  a 
burette  as  described  by  Payne  ^  may  be  applied  with  ad- 
vantage in  a  sugar-house  laboratory  and  contribute  its 
share  to  the  reduction  of  the  "  undetermined  losses." 
Payne's  article  is  given  here  in  full,  with  the  exception  of 
the  preliminary  statements  and  the  abridgment  of  the 
tables  to  an  upper  limit  of  40°  C.  The  author  urges  the 
adoption  of  Payne's  suggestion  relative  to  the  standard 
temperature. 

"  Most  makers  choose  15°  or  16°  as  the  standard  tem- 
perature, and  many  graduates  are  so  marked;  but  we  may 
preferably  take  a  somewhat  higher  temperature,  one 
nearer  the  average  working  temperature  of  our  room,  and 
in  this  way  secure  less  actual  deviation  from  the  truth. 
Several  temperatures  have  been  proposed  from  15°  to  25", 
and  the  highest  of  these  seems  to  be  the  best. 

"  Having  selected  a  standard  temperature  for  our  burette, 
the  next  point  to  consider  is  the  standard  unit  of  volume. 
By  definition,  '  The  kilogram  is  the  vacuum  weight  of 
1000  cc.  of  water  at  its  temperature  of  maximum  density, 
about  4^'     Reversing  this,  the  volume  occupied  by  i  kilo 


J  Journal  of  Anal,  and  Applied  Chemistry  6,  327. 


232       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

of  water  at  4°  (weighed  in  vacuo)  is  the  volume  of  icxx)  cc. 
or  I  litre.     Since  we  are  obliged  to  weigh  in  air,  and  for 
convenience  at  temperatures  greater  than  4°,  we  can  only 
arrive  at  the  correct  litre  by  knowing  the  conditions  of  our 
experiment  and  making  the  proper  corrections  therefor. 

"  The  true  litre  is  independent  of  the  expansion  of  water 
by  heat,  and  out  of  respect  for  the  authors  of  the  metric 
system,  as  well  as  from  a  regard  for  uniformity,  it  may 
well  be  retained  as  our  actual  standard. 

"Our  first  correction  depends  upon  thevariation  in  weight 
of  I  litre  of  water  under  a  change  of  temperature.  This 
has  been  determined  by  several  experimenters,  and  a  care- 
ful comparison  of  their  best  results  will  give  us  a  very 
accurate  table.  The  following  has  been  compiled  from  the 
latest  determinations,  plotted  into  a  curve  of  expansion 
and  corrected  by  the  method  of  second  differences.  (See 
Table  I.) 

"  At  our  standard  temperature,  25°,  the  true  weight  of  i 
litre    of    water   is    seen  to  be  997.27  gms.     The  apparent 

Table  No.  1. 


Density 

Volume 

Density 

Volume 

or 

or 

or 

or 

Degrees  C. 

Grams 

Centime- 

Degrees C. 

Grams 

Centime- 

in 

tres  cu.  in 

in 

tres  cu.  iu 

1  Litre. 

1  Kilo. 

1  Litre. 

1  Kilo. 

0 

999.86 

1000.14 

21 

998.18 

1001.82 

1 

999.91 

1000.09 

22 

997.97 

1002.03 

2 

999.95 

1000  05 

23 

997.74 

1002.26 

3 

999.98 

1000.02 

24 

997.51 

1002.49 

4 

1000  00 

1000.00 

26 

997.27 

1002.78 

5 

999.97 

1000.03 

26 

997.02 

1002.98 

6 

999.94 

1000.06 

27 

996.76 

1003.24 

7 

999.90 

1000.10 

28 

996.48 

1003.52 

8 

999.85 

1000.15 

29 

996.19 

1003.81 

9 

999.79 

1000.21 

30 

995.89 

1004.11 

10 

999.72 

1000.28 

31 

995.58 

1004.42 

11 

999.64 

1000.36 

32 

995.25 

1004.75 

12 

999.55 

1000.45 

33 

994.92 

1005.08 

13 

999.44 

1000.56 

34 

994.58 

1005.42 

14 

999.32 

1000.68 

35 

994  23 

1005.77 

15 

999.19 

1000  81 

36 

993.87 

1006.18 

16 

999. 0") 

1000  95 

37 

993  50 

1006.50 

17 

998.90 

ICOl.lO 

38 

993.12 

1006.88 

18 

9^8.74 

1001.26 

39 

992.73 

1007.27 

19 

998.57 

1001.43 

40 

992.32 

1007.68 

20 

998.38 

1001.62 

TESTING   A    BUHETTE. 


333 


weight  of  I  litre  of  water  at  25°  as  weighed  with  brass 
weights  in  air  at  the  same  temperature  and  at  760  mm. 
barometric  pressure  would  be  less  than  this  by  an  amount 
equal  to  the  weight  of  air  displaced  by  the  difference  in 
volume  between  the  water  and  the  weights.  With  brass  at 
a  sp.  gr.  of  8,  and  water  at  i,  the  difference  in  volume 
equals  |  of  the  volume  of  the  water  or  |  of  i  litre,  i  litre 
of  air  at  25°  and  760  mm.  B.  weighs  1. 1845  gms.  and  |  of  this 
1.0364  gms.  Hence  the  litre  under  these  circumstances 
weighs  or  at  least  counterbalances  weights  equal  to  996.23 
gms.  This  correction  for  loss  of  weight  in  air  varies  with 
the  barometer,  but  for  any  pressure  between  730  and  780 
mm.  a  change  of  less  than  .05  cc.  per  litre  is  occasioned, 
which  for  our  purpose  may  be  entirely  disregarded.  The 
temperature  of  the  air  will  be  approximately  the  same  as 
that  of  the  water,  a  maximum  difference  of  5°  modifying 
the  result  by  only  .02  cc.  per  litre,  and  by  subtracting  the 
correction  from  the  previous  table  we  get  the  following  : 


Table  No.  2. 

APPARENT  WEIGHT  OF  1  LITRE  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES,  AS  WEIGHED  WITH  BRASS  WEIGHTS  IN 
AIR. 


Temp,  of  Water, 
Degrees  C. 

Apparent 
Weight. 

Temp,  of  Water, 
Degrees  C. 

Apparent 
Weight. 

J5 

998.1 

28 

995.4 

16     • 

998.0 

29 

995.2 

17 

997.8 

30 

394.9 

18 

997.7 

Si 

994.6 

19 

997.5      • 

32 

991.2 

20 

997.3 

33 

993.9 

21 

997.1 

34 

993.6 

22 

996.9 

35 

993.2 

23 

996.7 

36 

992.9 

24 

996.5 

37 

992.5 

25 

996.2 

38 

992.1 

26 

996.0 

39 

991.7 

27 

995.7 

40 

991.3 

"  This  table  at  25°  gives  the  apparent  weight  of  one  litre  of 
water  as  measured  by  our  burette.  The  expansion  or  con- 
traction of  the  glass  above  or  below  this  temperature  will 
modify  the  other  figures  by  an  amount  equal  to  .023  cc.  for 
each  degree,  and  this  amount  must  be  subtracted  below  25°, 


234       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 

and  added  above  25°,  to  the  figures  of  the  table.  Hence  we 
have  a  final  table  giving  the  apparent  weight  of  i  litre  of 
water  under  ordinary  circumstances  as  above  stated.  As 
most  of  our  volumetric  glassware  is  marked  as  standard  at 
15°.  we  give  a  table  for  this  temperature  also,  although  the 
difference  amounts  to  only  .02  per  cent. 

Table  No.  3. 

apparent  weight  of  1  litre  of  water  at  different 
temperatures,  as  weighed  with  brass  weights  in 

AIR.      CORRECTED  FOR  EXPANSION  OF  GLASS. 


Temperature. 

Apparent  Weight. 

Apparent  Volume. 

Degrees  C. 

Standard 

Standard 

Standard 

Standard 

at  15°. 

at  25°. 

at  15°. 

at  25°. 

15 

998.1 

997  9 

1001.9 

1002.1 

16 

998.0 

997.8 

1002.0 

1002.2 

17 

997.9 

997.7 

1002.1 

1002.3 

18 

997.8 

997.5 

1002.2 

1002.5 

19 

997.6 

997.4 

100-2.4 

1002.6 

20 

997.4 

997.2 

1002  6 

1002.8 

21 

997.3 

997.0 

1002.7 

1003.0 

22 

997.1 

996.8 

1002.9 

1003.2 

23 

996.9 

996.6 

1003.1 

1003.4 

24 

996.7 

996.4 

1003  3 

1003.6 

^5 

996  6 

996  2 

1003.5 

1003.8 

26 

996. '-2 

996.0 

1003  8 

1004.0 

27 

996.0 

995.8 

1004.0 

1004.2 

28 

995.7 
995.5 

995.5 

1004.3 

1004.5 

29 

995.2 

1004.5 

1004.8 

30 

995.2 

995.0 

1004.8 

1005.0 

31 

994.9 

994.7 

1005.1 

1005.3 

32 

994.6 

994.4 

1005.4 

1005.6 

33 

994.3  • 

994.1 

1005.7 

1005.9 

34 

994.0 

993.8 

1006.0 

1006.2 

35 

993.7 

993.5 

1006.3 

1006.5 

36 

993.4 

993.2 

1006.6 

1006.8 

37 

993.0 

992.8 

1007.0 

1007.2 

38 

992.6 

992.4 

1007.4 

1007.6 

39 

992.3 

992.1 

ioor.7 

1007.9 

40 

991.9 

991.7 

1008.1 

100S.3 

"  This  table  is  accurate  to  probably  .1  cc.  in  a  litre  or  to  .01 
per  cent.,  which  is  about  the  limit  of  error  in  an  ordinary 
analysis. 

"  In  testing  a  burette  or  other  graduate,  the  conditions  of 
the  operation  should  be  as  nearly  as  possible  the  same  as 
those  of  actual  uSe.     The  burette  should  be  read  after  a  lapse 


TESTING  A   BURETTE.  235 

of  lime  equal  to  the  time  of  an  ordinary  titration.  We  have 
found  that  in  a  lOO  cc.  burette  on  drawing  the  contents  out 
rapidly  the  liquid  will  run  down  from  the  sides  about  as 
follows  : 

.1  cc.  in       ^  minute. 

.2  cc.  in     2     minutes. 

.3  cc.  in     5     minutes, 
and  .4  cc.  in  15     minutes. 

"Water,  acid,  and  salt  solutions  about  the  same,  but  al- 
kalies a  little  more  slowly.  As  a  careful  titration  takes 
usually  more  than  2  minutes  and  less  than  15,  we  are  accus- 
tomed to  read  the  burette  after  5  minutes  standing. 

"  Select  water  at  the  same  temperature  as  the  balance- 
room.  A  convenient  vessel  for  holding  the  water  while 
weighing  is  a  good-sized  weighing-bottle  or  a  glass-stop- 
pered 100  cc.  flask.  A  solution  of  bichromate  of  potash  in 
moderately  strong  sulphuric  acid  used  warm  is  an  excellent 
agent  for  removing  grease  or  other  foreign  matter  from  a 
burette-tube. 

"  The  following  example  of  2  burettes  purchased  recently 
will  show  the  method  of  testing  and  also  exhibit  the  quality 
of  graduated  glassware  to  be  found  in  the  market.  With 
two  or  three  tested  burettes  and  flasks  in  a  laboratory  we 
may  readily  compare  others  and  make  them  equivalent. 

25  cc„  Burette.        Mark  B.      Water  at  25°. 

Weighings.  HjO.  True  cc.  Burette.  Difference. 

Empty         25.120  0.00 

32.931  7.8TI  7.84  7.82  7.82 

41.452  8.521  8.55  16.37  8.55 

49.252  -J. too  7.83  24.21  7.84 


24.22 


Same  Burette  again  for  Total  Capacity.  Water  at  25' 

Weighings.  Burette. 

Empty  25.084  0.00 

49.946  24.94 


24.862  =  24.96  cc.  error,  .02  cc. 


236       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

Duplicate.     Water  at  25°. 
Burette. 
Empty  25.086 

49.983  0.00 


24.897  =  25.00  cc.  24.97  error,  .03  cc. 

"  Burette  readings  were  taken  to  y^^  cc,  but  the  error  of 
such  a  reading  would  amount  to  probably  .03  cc.  The  re- 
sults of  the  above  test  shOw  the  burette  to  be  highly  accu- 
rate. It  will  be  noticed  that  duplicate  determinations  give 
concordant  results,  the  variations  being  less  than  the  prob- 
able error  of  any  single  reading.  This  fact  alone  will  indi- 
cate the  general  accuracy  of  the  method. 


Empty 


Empty 

! 


cc.  Burette. 

Mark  K. 

Water  at  26' 

Burette. 

Errors. 

Weighings. 
25.065 

H2O. 

True  cc. 

Difference 
0.00 

.  Successive.  Total. 

32.587 

7.522 

7.55 

7.57 

7.57 

+  .02 

40.083 

7.496 

7.53 

15.10 

7.53 

.00 

+  .02 

47.573 

7.490 

7.52 

22.63 

7.53 

+  .01 

+  .03 

54.954 

7.381 

7.41 

30.00 

7.37 

-  M 

-  .01 

62.501 

7.547 

7.58 

37.59 

7.59 

+  .01 

.00 

70.022 

7.5:M 

7.55 

45.17 

7.58 

+  .03 

+  .03 

77.692 

7.670 

7.70 

52.88 

7.71 

+  .01 

+  .04 

25.129 

32.940 

7.811 

7.84 

60.70 

7.82 

-  .02 

+  .02 

40.461 

7.521 

7.55 

68.25 

7.55 

.00 

+  .02 

45.740 

5.279 

5.30 

73.65 

5.40 

+  .10 

+  .13 

73.53       73.65 


'*  The  test  points  to  a  probable  inaccuracy  in  the  lower 
part  of  the  burette.  This  fact  was  proven  by  a  duplication 
of  the  weighings  for  the  lower  part  of  the  burette,  and  also 
by  a  direct  comparison  of  this  burette  with  the  25  cc. 
burette  marked  B,  and  an  error  of  .1  cc.  was  discovered 
between  the  70  and  75  cc.  marks." 

In  graduating  apparatus  to  Mohr's  units,  instead  of  to 
true  cubic  centimetres,  proceed  as  described  in  233,  page 
250.  When  the  normal  weight,  26.048  grams,  is  used  with 
Schmidt  and  Haensch  polariscopes,  the  flasks  should  be 
graduated  to  Mohr's  units  ;  with  the  Laurent  polariscope, 
the  flask.s  should  be  graduated  to  true  cubic  centimetres. 


EVAPORATION^   TABLE. 


237 


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238       HAKDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


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EVAPORATION   TABLE. 


239 


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EVAPORATION   TABLE. 


241 


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•"    X    © 

11§ 


fe  S- 


242       HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

835.  TABLE  FOR  THE  REDUCTION  OF'  THE  WEIGHT  OR 
VOLUME  OF  A  SIRUP  OF  A  GIVEN  DEGREE  BRIX  OR  BAUMfi 
TO  A  SIRUP  OF  54.3°  BRIX  OR  30°  BAUMfi.— (G.  L.  Spencer.) 


Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  04  3°  Brixor 

Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54.3°  Brix  or 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

,.^ 

S    ^ 

«     2 

«,'« 

w 

■2       4> 

i-c 

11 

id 

|a 

14 

^£ 

S3    ^ 

£    > 

0M 

u      ^ 

Ti 

^ 

_^ 

Ph 

PLH 

^ 

^ 

PH 

P4 

85.0 

19.6 

64.46 

59.19 

89.0 

21.8 

71.82 

67.10 

.1 

19.65 

64.64 

59.38 

21.8 

72.00 

67.30 

.2 

19.7 

64.83 

59.58 

.2 

21.9 

72.19 

67.51 

.3 

19.8 

65.01 

59.77 

.3 

21.9 

72.37 

67.71 

.4 

19.8 

65.19 

59.96 

.4 

22.0 

72.55 

67.91 

.5 

19.9 

65.38 

60.16 

.5 

22.05 

72.74 

68.12 

,6 

19.9 

65.. 56 

60.36 

.6 

22.1 

72.92 

68.32 

.7 

20.0 

65.74 

60.56 

.7 

22.2 

73.10 

68.52 

.8 

20.0 

65.93 

60.75 

.8 

22.2 

73.29 

68.72 

.9 

20.1 

66.11 

60.94 

.9 

22.3 

73.47 

68.92 

86.0 

20.1 

66.30 

61.14 

40.0 

22.3 

73.66 

69.12 

.1 

20.2 

66.48 

61.33 

.1 

22.4 

73.84 

69.32 

.2 

20  25 

66.67 

61.53 

.2 

22.4 

74.02 

69.52 

.3 

20.3 

66.85 

61. 7i 

.3 

22.5 

74.21 

69  73 

.4 

20.4 

67.03 

61.92 

.4 

22.5 

74.40 

69.93 

.5 

20  4 

67.22 

62.12 

.5 

22.6 

74.58 

70.14 

.6 

20.5 

67.40 

62.31 

.6 

22.6 

74.76 

70.34 

.7 

20.5 

67.59 

62.50 

.7 

22.7 

74.94 

70.54 

.8 

20.6 

67.77 

62.70 

.8 

22.8 

75.13 

70.74 

.9 

20.6 

67.95 

62.91 

.9 

22.8 

75.31 

70.94 

87.0 

20.7 

68.14 

63.11 

41.0 

22.9 

75.. W 

71.15 

.1 

20.7 

68.32 

63.31 

.1 

22.9 

75.68 

71.35 

.2 

20.8 

68.50 

03  51 

.2 

23.0 

75.87 

71.55 

.3 

20.9 

68.69 

63.70 

.3 

23  0 

76.06 

71.75 

.4 

20.9 

68.87 

63.90 

.4 

23.1 

76.24 

71.95 

.5 

21.0 

69.06 

64.10 

.5 

23.1 

76.42 

72.16 

.6 

21.0 

69.24 

64.30 

.6 

23.2 

76.60 

72.37 

.7 

21.1 

69.42 

64.49 

.7 

23.25 

76  78 

72.58 

.8 

21.1 

69.61 

64.69 

.8 

23.3 

76.97 

72.79 

.9 

21.8 

69.79 

64.89 

.9 

23.4 

77.16 

73.00 

88.0 

21.2 

69.98 

65.09 

42.0 

23.4 

77.34 

73.21 

.1 

21.3 

70.16 

65.29 

.1 

23.5 

77.52 

73.41 

.2 

21.35 

70.34 

65.49 

.2 

23.5 

77.70 

73.61 

.3 

21.4 

70.53 

65.69 

.3 

23.6 

77.89 

73.81 

.4 

21.5 

70.72 

65.90 

.4 

23.6 

78.08 

74.01 

.5 

21.5 

70.90 

66.10 

.5 

23.7 

78.26 

74.22 

.6 

21.6 

71.08 

66.30 

.6 

23.7 

78.44 

74.43 

.7 

21.6 

71.26 

66.50 

.7 

23.8 

78.62 

74.64 

.8 

21.7 

71.45 

66.70 

.8 

23.8 

78.81 

74.86 

.9 

21.7 

71.63 

66.90 

,9 

23.9 

79.00 

75.08 

TABLE   FOR -REDUCTION   OF   WEIGHT   OF   SIRUP.    243 

TABLE   FOR  THE  REDUCTION  OP  THE  WEIGHT   OR  VOLUME 
OF  A  SIRUP,   KTC— Continued. 


Initial 

1 
Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54.3°  Brix  or 

Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54,3°  Brix  or 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

r^"^ 

2    «* 

5     6 

^^ 

2     ^• 

«        <D 

i-g 

1^1 
1    ^ 

hi 

^B 
2  ^ 

1  ^ 

hi 

43.0 

23.95 

79.19 

75.29 

47  0 

26.1 

86.55 

83.76 

.1 

24.0 

79.37 

75.49 

.1 

26.2 

86.73 

83.97 

.2 

24.1 

79.55 

75.69 

.2 

26.2 

86.91 

84.18 

.3 

24.1 

79.74 

75.89 

.3 

26.3 

87.10 

84.39 

.4 

24.2 

79.92 

76.10 

.4 

26.3 

87.29 

84.60 

.5 

24.2 

80.11 

76.31 

.5 

26.4 

87.47 

84.88 

.6 

24.3 

80.29 

76.52 

.6 

26.4 

87.65 

85.04 

.7 

24.3 

80.47 

76.73 

.7 

26.5 

87.83 

85.26 

.8 

24.4 

80.66 

76.95 

.8 

26.5 

88.02 

85.48 

.9 

24.4 

80.85 

77.17 

.9 

26.6 

88.21 

85.70 

44  0 

24.5 

81.03 

77.38 

48  0 

26.6 

88.39 

85.92 

.1 

24.55 

81.21 

77.59 

.1 

26.7 

88.57 

86.13 

.2 

24.6 

81.39 

77.80 

.2 

26.75 

88.75 

86.35 

.3 

24.65 

81.58 

78.01 

.3 

26.8 

88.94 

86.57 

.4 

24.7 

81.77 

78.22 

.4 

26.9 

89.13 

86.79 

.5 

24.8 

81.95 

78.43 

.5 

26.9 

89.13 

87.01 

.6 

24.8 

82.13 

78  64 

.6 

27.0 

89.49 

87.23 

.7 

24.9 

82.31 

78.85 

.7 

27.0 

89.67 

87.45 

.8 

24.9 

82.50 

79.06 

.8 

27.1 

89.86 

87.67 

.9 

25.0 

82.69 

79.27 

.9 

27.1 

90.15 

87.89 

45.0 

25.0 

82.87 

79.49 

49.0 

27.2 

90.24 

88.11 

.1 

25.1 

83.05 

79.70 

.1 

27.2 

90.42 

88.33 

.2 

25.1 

83.23 

79.91 

.2 

27.3 

90.60 

88.55 

.3 

25.2 

83.42 

80.12 

.3 

27.3 

90.78 

88.77 

.4 

25.2 

83.61 

80.33 

.4 

27.4 

90.96 

88.99 

.5 

25.3 

83.79 

80.54 

.5 

27.4 

91.16 

89.21 

.6 

25.4 

8;i.97 

80.75 

.6 

27.5 

91.35 

89.43 

.7 

25.4 

84.15 

80.96 

.7 

27.6 

91.54 

89.65 

.8 

25.5 

84.34 

81.18 

.8 

27.6 

91.72 

89.87 

.9 

25.5 

84.53 

81.40 

.9 

27.7 

92.90 

90.09 

46  0 

25.6 

84.71 

81.61 

60.0 

27.7 

92.08 

90.31 

.1 

25.6 

84.89 

81.82 

.1 

27.8 

92.26 

90.53 

.2 

25.7 

85.07 

82.a3 

.2 

27.8 

92.45 

90.75 

.3 

25.7 

85.26 

82.24 

.3 

27.9 

92.63 

90.97 

.4 

25.8 

85.45 

82.45 

.4 

27.9 

92.82 

91.19 

.5 

25.8 

85.63 

82.66 

.5 

28.0 

93.00 

91.41 

.6 

25.9 

85.81 

82.87 

.6 

28.0 

93.19 

91.63 

.7 

25.95 

85.99 

83.09 

.7 

28.1 

93.37 

91.85 

.8 

26.0 

86.18 

83.31 

.8 

28.1 

93.55 

92.07 

.9 

26.1 

86.37 

83.53 

.9 

28.2 

93.73 

92.30 

244       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE  FOR   THE   REDUCTION  OP  THE  WEIGHT  OR  VOLUME 
OF  A  SIRUP,  -ETC.-Continued. 


Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54.8»  Brix  or 

Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  .54  3°  Brix  or 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

r.^ 

2    ^ 

2     © 

2     « 

2     6 

1.-1 

hi 

Im' 

|l 

hi 

hi 

1^ 

&> 

l§ 

1^ 

1  ^ 

61.0 

28.2 

93.92 

92.. 53 

55.0 

30,4 

101.28 

101.61 

.1 

28.3 

94.10 

92.75 

.1 

30.4 

101.46 

101.84 

.2 

28.35 

94  29 

9i.97 

.2 

30.5 

101.64 

102.07 

.3 

28.4 

94.47 

93.19 

.3 

30.5 

101.83 

102.30 

.4 

28.5 

94.65 

93.41 

.4 

30.6 

102.01 

102.53 

.5 

28.5 

94  84 

93  63 

.5 

30.6 

102.20 

102.76 

.6 

28.6 

95.02 

93.85 

.6 

307 

102.38 

102.99 

.7 

28.6 

95.20 

94.07 

.7 

30.7 

102.56 

103.22 

.8 

28.7 

95.39 

94.30 

.8 

30  8 

102.75 

103.45 

.9 

28.7 

95.58 

94.53 

.9 

30.8 

102.94 

103.68 

62.0 

28.8 

95.76 

94.77 

60.0 

30.9 

103.13 

103.92 

.1 

28.8 

95.94 

94.99 

30.9 

103  31 

104.15 

.2 

28.9 

96.13 

95.21 

.2 

31.0 

103.49 

104.38 

.3 

28.9 

96.31 

95.43 

.3 

31.05 

103.68 

104.61 

.4 

29.0 

96.50 

95.65 

.4 

31.1 

103.86 

104.84 

.5 

29.0 

96.68 

95.87 

.5 

31.2 

104.05 

105.07 

.6 

29.1 

96  87 

96.09 

.6 

31.2 

104. -^3 

105.30 

.7 

29.15 

97.05 

96.. 32 

.7 

31.3 

104.41 

m.M 

.8 

29.2 

97.23 

96.55 

.8 

31.3 

104.60 

105.78 

.9 

29.2 

97.42 

96.79 

.9 

31.4 

104.78 

106.02 

68.0 

29.3 

97.60 

97.02 

67  0 

31.4 

104.97 

106.26 

.1 

29.4 

97.79 

97.25 

.1 

31.5 

105.15 

106.49 

.2 

29.4 

97.98 

97.48 

.2 

31.5 

105  34 

106.72 

.3 

29.5 

98.16 

97.71 

.3 

31.6 

105.. 52 

106.95 

.4 

29.5 

98.34 

97.94 

.4 

31.6 

105.70 

107.18 

.5 

29.6 

98.52 

98.17 

.5 

31.7 

105.89 

107.41 

.6 

29.6 

98.70 

98.40 

.6 

31.7 

106  07 

107.65 

.7 

29.7 

98.89 

98  63 

.7 

31.8 

106.25 

107.89 

.8 

29.7 

99.07 

98.86 

.8 

31.8 

106.44 

108.13 

.9 

29.8 

99.26 

99.08 

.9 

31.9 

106.62 

108.37 

64.0 

29.8 

99.44 

99.30 

68  0 

81.9 

106  81 

108.61 

.1 

29.9 

99.62 

99.53 

.1 

32.0 

106.99 

108.84 

o 

29.9 

99.81 

99.76 

.2 

32.0 

107.17 

109.08 

64!3 

80.0 

100.00 

100.00 

.3 

32.1 

107.35 

109.32 

.4 

.30.05 

100.18 

100.22 

.4 

32.15 

107.54 

109.56 

.5 

30.1 

100.36 

100.45 

.5 

32.2 

107.73 

109.80 

.6 

30.2 

100.55 

100.68 

.6 

82.8 

107.91 

110.04 

.7 

30.2 

100.73 

100.91 

.7 

32.3 

108.09 

110.28 

.8 

30.3 

100.91 

101.14 

.8 

32.4 

108.28 

110.52 

.9 

30.3 

101.09 

101.37 

.9 

82.4 

108.47 

110.76 

TABLE  FOR  REDUCTIOIT  OF  WEIGHT  OF  SIRUP.  245 

TABLE   FOR   THE   REDUCTION  OF  THE  WEIGHT  OR  VOLUME 
OF  A  SIRUP,  ETC.-Continued. 


Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54.3°  Brix  or 

Initial 

Equivalent  Sirup 
of  54.3°  Brix  or 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

Density. 

30°  Baum6. 

vc 

2     4^ 

«      «• 

va^ 

^     ^ 

«       45 

®.b 

|S 

m 

hi 

h  08 

s4 

hi 

t 

1" 

1^ 

&> 

t 

^M 

&^ 

&> 

69.0 

32.5 

108.65 

111.00 

!    60.0 

33.0 

110  49 

113.39 

.1 

32.5 

108.83 

111.23 

.1 

33.0 

110.68 

113.63 

32.6 

109  02 

111.47 

.2 

33.1 

110.86 

113.87 

.3 

32.6 

109.20 

111.71 

.3 

33.1 

111.04 

114.11 

.4 

32.7 

109.38 

111.95 

.4 

33.2 

111.23 

114.35 

.5 

32.7 

109.56 

112.19 

.5 

33.2 

111.41 

114.59 

.6 

32.8 

109.75 

112.43 

.6 

33.3 

111.60 

114.83 

.7 

32.8 

109.93 

112.67 

.7 

33.35 

111.78 

114.97 

.8 

32.9 

110.12 

112.91 

.8 

33.4 

111.96 

115.31 

.9 

32.9 

110.30 

113.15 

.9 

33.45 

112.14 

115.45 

The  above  table  is  for  use  in  calculating  sirups  within 
the  usual  range  of  densities,  to  a  standard  degree  Brix  or 
Baum6,  for  purposes  of  comparison.  A  convenient  check 
on  pan  and  centrifugal  work  is  a  statement  showing  the 
analysis  of  the  sirup  and  the  pounds  of  first  sugar  yielded 
per  loo  lbs.,  or  per  loo  gallons  of  sirup  of  54.3°  Brix  (30° 
Baume).  The  volume  or  weight  of  sirup  at  54.3°  Brix  (30° 
Baum6)  is  obtained  by  multiplying  the  measured  volume 
or  the  weight  by  the  number  in  the  per  cent  column  in  the 
table  corresponding  to  the  observed  degree  Brix  or  Baum6 
and  pointing  off  as  in  other  percentage  calculations. 


246       HANDBOOK   FOB  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


226.  TABLE  SHOWING    THE  VOLUMES  OF   JUICE,   IN    LITRES, 
YIELDED  IN  THE  DIFFUSION  OF  100  KILOGRAMS  OF  BEETS 
OF  VARIOUS  DENSITIES.     (F.  Dupont.) 
See  page  207. 


Density 
of  the 

1  Density  of  the  Normal  Juice  of  the  Beet. 

Diffusion- 
juice. 

5° 

5.5° 

6° 

6.5° 

7° 

7.5° 

8» 

8.5° 

9° 

3.6» 

125 

137 

148 

161 

173 

184 

193 

206 

218 

3.8 

118 

134 

143 

152 

163 

174 

185 

'\ 

206 

4 

113 

124 

134 

144 

155 

165 

176 

186 

196 

4.2 

117 

127 

138 

147 

157 

167 

177 

187 

4.4 

112 

122 

132 

141 

150 

160 

170 

178 

4.6 

116 
111 

126 
121 
116 
111 

135 
130 
124 
120 

145 
138 
132 
127 

153 
147 
141 
135 

162 
156 
149 
143 

170 

4.8 



163 

5 

157 

5.2 

151 

5.4 

115 
HI 

122 

118 

130 
126 

138 
132 

145 

5.6 





140 

5.8 

114 
110 

121 
117 
114 
110 

127 
124 
120 
117 
114 
110 

135 

6 

131 

6.2 

127 

6.4 

123 

6.6 

119 

6.8 

115 

7 

112 

7.2 

109 

I 

jitres  c 

)f  juic« 

?  per  1 

DO  kilo 

3.  beet 

3. 

^  The  degrees  given  in  this  table  are  according  to  the  French.  To  con 
vert  into  specific  gravity,  prefix  10  and  move  the  decimal  point  two 
places  to  the  left.    Example :  S.e*  =  1.036  specific  gravity  =  9°  Brix. 


FORMULJE   FOR  CONCENTRATION   AND   DILUTION.     247 


227.  Formiilse  for  Coucentratiou  and  Dilu- 

tiou.     (1)  Having  two  solutions  of  known  degrees  Brix  (B 

and  B),  to  determine  the  degree  Brix  of  a  mixture  composed 

of  the  volumes  Fand  V  of  these  solutions. 

'A       VB+VB' 
X  =  degree  Brix  required  =  —     '  . 

(2)  Formula  for  the  calculation  of  the  water  required  (per 
cent  by  weight)  to  reduce  a  sugar  solution  of  a  given  density 
to  any  required  density. 

xz=z  per  cent  of  water  required;  B=  initial  degree  Brix  ; 

■«  .       .       ..,     .          B-h        „       ^    100^ 
h  =  degree  Brix  after  dilution  ;  — =5 —  =  E,  and -  =  x, 

the  per  cent  required. 

(3)  For  formulae  for  the  concentration  of  sugar  solutions  from 
stated  densities  to  certain  required  densities,  see  pages  239,  241. 

(4)  To  determine  the  volume  F  of  a  sugar  solution  before 
concentration. 

b  =  degree  Brix,  8  =  the  specific  gravity  of  the  solution 
before  concentration  ;  B  =  degree  Brix,  S  =  specific  gravity 
after  concentration  to  a  volume  of  100. 

lOOSB 


V  = 


8b 


338.    TABLE  SHOWING  A  COMPARISON  OF  THEKMOMETRIC 

SCALES. 

(Schubarth's  Handbuch  der  techn.  Chem.  III.  Aufl.  I.  61.) 


Fah- 

Centi- 

Reau- 

Fah- 

Centi- 

Reau- 

Fah- 

Centi- 

Reau- 

ren- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

ren- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

ren- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

0 

212 

100 

80 

100 

87.78 

70.22 

168 

75.55 

60.44 

211 

99.44 

79  56 

189 

87.22 

69.78 

167 

75 

60 

210 

98.89 

79.11 

188 

86.67 

69.33 

166 

74.44 

59.56 

209 

98.33 

78.67 

187 

86.11 

68.89 

165 

73.89 

59.11 

208 

97.78 

78.22 

186 

85.55 

68.44 

164 

73.33 

58.67 

207 

97.22 

77.78 

185 

85 

68 

163 

72.78 

58.22 

206 

96.67 

77.33 

184 

84.44 

67.56 

162 

72.22 

57.78 

205 

96.11 

76.89 

183 

83.89 

67.11 

161 

71.67 

57.33 

204 

95.55 

76.44 

182 

83.33 

66.67 

160 

71.11 

56.89 

203 

95 

76 

181 

82.78 

66.22 

159 

70.55 

56.44 

202 

94.44 

75.56 

180 

82.22 

65.78 

158 

70 

56 

201 

93.89 

75.11 

179 

81.67 

65.3;i 

157 

69.44 

55.56 

200 

93  33 

74.67 

178 

81.11 

64.89 

156 

68.89 

55.11 

199 

92.78 

74.22 

177 

80.55 

64.44 

155 

68.33 

54.67 

198 

92.22 

73  78 

176 

80 

64 

154 

67.78 

54.22 

197 

91.67 

73.33 

175 

79.44 

63.56 

153 

67.22 

53.78 

196 

91.11 

72.89 

174 

78  89 

63.11 

152 

66.67 

53.33 

195 

90.55 

72.44 

173 

78.33 

62.67 

151 

66.11 

52.89 

194 

90 

72 

172 

77.78 

62.22 

150 

65.55 

52.44 

193 

89.44 

71.56 

171 

77.22 

61.78 

149 

65 

52 

192 

88.89 

71.11 

170 

76.67 

61.33 

148 

64.44 

51.56 

191 

88.33 

70  67 

169 

76.11 

60.89 

147 

63.89 

51.11 

248       HANDBOOK   FOE  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 
COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETI^ip  SCATjES.— Continued. 


Fah- 

Centi- 

Reau- 

Fah- 

Centi- 

Reau- 

Fah- 

Centi- 

R6au. 

r6n- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

ren- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

ren- 
heit. 

grade. 

mur. 

e 

o 

0 

0 

0 

0 

e 

0 

0 

146 

63.33 

50.67 

83 

28.33 

22.67 

21 

-6.11 

-4.89 

145 

62.78 

50.22 

82 

27.78 

22.22 

20 

-6.67 

-5.33 

144 

62.22 

49.78 

81 

27.22 

21.78 

19 

-7.22 

-5.78 

143 

61.67 

49.33 

80 

26.67 

21.33 

18 

-7.78 

-6.22 

142 

61.11 

48.89 

79 

26.11 

20.89 

17 

-8.33 

-6.67 

141 

60.55 

48.44 

78 

25.55 

20.44 

16 

-8.89 

-7.11 

140 

60 

48 

77 

25 

20 

15 

-9.44 

-7.56 

139 

59.44 

47.56 

76 

24.44 

19.56 

14 

-10 

-8 

138 

58.89 

47.11 

75 

23.89 

19.11 

13 

-10.55 

-8.44 

137 

58.33 

46.67 

74 

23.33 

18.67 

12 

-11.11 

-8.89 

136 

57.78 

46.22 

73 

22.78 

18.22 

11 

-11.67 

-9.33 

135 

57.22 

45.78 

72 

22.22 

17.78 

10 

-12.22 

-9.78 

134 

56.67 

45.33 

71 

21.67 

17.33 

9 

-12.78 

-10.22 

138 

56.11 

44  89 

70 

21.11 

16.89 

8 

-13.33 

-10.67 

132 

55.55 

44.44 

69 

20.55 

16.44 

7 

-13.89 

-11.11 

131 

55 

41 

68 

20 

16 

6 

-14.44 

-11.56 

180 

54.44 

43.56 

67 

19.44 

15.56 

5 

-15 

-12 

129 

53.89 

43.11 

66 

18.89 

15.11 

4 

-15.55 

-12.44 

128 

53.33 

42.67 

65 

18. 3& 

14.67 

3 

-16.11 

-12.89 

127 

52.78 

42.22 

64 

17.78 

14.22 

2 

-16.67 

-13.33 

126 

52.22 

41.78 

63 

17.22 

13.78 

1 

-17.22 

-13.78 

125 

51.67 

41.33 

62 

16.67 

13.33 

0 

-17.78 

-14.22 

124 

51.11 

40.89 

61 

16.11 

12.89 

-1 

-18.33 

-14.67 

123 

50.55 

40.44 

60 

15.55 

12.44 

-2> 

-18.89 

-15.11 

122 

50 

40 

59 

15 

12 

-3 

-19.44 

-15.56 

121 

49.44 

39.56 

58 

14.44 

11.56 

-4 

-20 

-16 

120 

48.89 

39.11 

57 

13.89 

11.11 

-5 

-20.55 

-16.44 

119 

48.33 

38.67 

56 

13.33 

10.67 

-6 

-21.11 

-16.89 

118 

47.78 

38.22 

55 

12.78 

10.22 

-7 

-21.67 

-17.33 

117 

47.22 

37.78 

54 

12.22 

9.78 

-8 

-22.22 

-17.78 

116 

46.67 

37.33 

53 

11.67 

9.33 

-9 

-22.78 

-18.22 

115 

46.11 

36.89 

52 

11.11 

8.89 

-10 

-23.33 

-18.67 

114 

45.55 

36.44 

51 

10.55 

8.44 

-11 

-23.89 

-19.11 

113 

45 

36 

50 

10 

8 

-12 

-24.44 

-19.56 

112 

44.44 

35.56 

49 

9.44 

7.56 

-13 

-25 

-20 

111 

43  89 

35.11 

48 

8.89 

7.11 

-14 

-25.55 

-20.44 

110 

4:^.33 

34.67 

47 

8.33 

6.67 

-15 

-26.11 

-20.89 

109 

42.78 

34.22 

46 

7.78 

6.22 

-16 

-26.67 

-21.33 

108 

42.22 

33.78 

45 

7.22 

5.78 

-17 

-27.22 

-21.78 

107 

41.67 

33.33 

44 

6.67 

5.33 

-18 

-27.78 

-22.22 

106 

41.11 

32.89 

43 

6.11 

4.89 

-19 

-28.33 

-22.67 

105 

40.55 

32.44 

42 

5.55 

4.44 

-20 

-28.89 

-23.11 

104 

40 

32 

41 

5 

4 

-21 

-29.44 

-23.56 

103 

39.44 

31.56 

40 

4.44 

3.56 

-22 

-30 

-24 

102 

38.89 

31.11 

39 

3.89 

3.11 

-23 

-30.55 

-24.44 

101 

38.33 

30.67 

38 

3.33 

2.67 

-24 

-31.11 

-24.89 

100 

37.78 

30.22 

87 

2.78 

2.22 

-25 

-31.67 

-25.33 

99 

37.22 

29.78 

36 

2.22 

1.78 

-26 

-32.22 

-25.78 

98 

36.67 

29.33 

35 

1.67 

1.33 

-27 

-32.78 

-26.22 

97 

36.11 

28.89 

34 

1.11 

0.89 

-28 

-33.33 

-26.67 

96 

35.55 

28.44 

33 

0.55 

0.44 

-29 

-33.89 

-27.11 

95 

35 

28 

32 

0. 

0. 

-30 

-34.44 

-27.56 

94 

34.44 

27.56 

31 

-0.55 

-0.44 

-31 

-35 

-28 

93 

3:3.89 

27.11 

30 

-1.11 

-0.89 

-32 

-35.55 

-28.44 

92 

33.33 

26.67 

29 

-1.67 

-1.33 

-33 

-36.11 

-28.89 

91 

32.78 

26.22 

28 

-2  22 

-1.78 

-34 

-36.67 

-29.33 

90 

32.22 

25.78 

27 

-2.78 

-2.22 

-35 

-37.22 

-29.78 

89 

31.67 

25.33 

26 

-3.  as 

-2  67 

-36 

-37.78 

-30.22 

88 

31.11 

24.89 

25 

-3.89 

-3.11 

-37 

-38.33 

-30.67 

87 

30.55 

24.44 

24 

-4.44 

-3.56 

-38 

-;38.89 

-31.11 

86 

30 

24 

23 

-5 

-4 

-39 

-39.44 

-31.50 

85 
84 

29.44 
28.89 

23  56 
23.11 

22 

-5.55 

-4.44 

-40 

-40 

-38 

COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC  SCALES.       249 


Formulae  for  the  conversion  of  the  degrees  of  one  thermometric  scale 
into  those  of  another: 

B  =  |(F-32)  =  ja. 
Additions  and  subtractions  are  algebraic. 

839.   TABLE  SHOWING  A  COMPARISON  OF  THERMOMETRIC 
SCALES. 


Centi- 

Fah- 

Reau- 

Centi- 

Fah- 

Reau- 

Centi- 

Fah- 

Reau- 

grade. 

ren- 
heit. 

mur. 

grade. 

ren- 
heit. 

mur. 

grade. 

ren- 
heit. 

mur. 

o 

o 

o 

0 

o 

o 

o 

o 

o 

100 

212 

80 

62 

143.6 

49.6 

24 

75.2 

19.2 

99 

210.2 

79.2 

61 

141.8 

48.8 

23 

73.4 

18.4 

98 

208.4 

78.4 

60 

140 

48 

22 

71.6 

17.6 

97 

206.6 

77  6 

59 

138.2 

47.2 

21 

698 

16.8 

96 

204.8 

76.8 

58 

136.4 

46  4 

20 

68 

16 

95 

203 

76 

57 

134.6 

45.6 

19 

66.2 

15.2 

94 

201.2 

75.2 

56 

132.8 

44  8 

18 

64.4 

14.4 

93 

199.4 

74.4 

55 

131 

44 

17 

62.6 

13.6 

92 

197.6 

73.6 

54 

129.2 

43.2 

16 

60.8 

12.8 

91 

195.8 

72.8 

53 

127.4 

42.4 

15 

59 

12 

90 

194 

72 

52 

125.6 

41.6 

14 

57.2 

11.2 

89 

192.2 

71.2 

51 

123.8 

40.8 

13 

KK    A 

10.4 

55. 4 

88 

190.4 

70.4 

50 

122 

40 

12 

53.6 

9.6 

87 

188.6 

69.6 

49 

120.2 

39.2 

11 

51.8 

8.8 

86 

186.8 

68.8 

48 

118.4 

38.4 

10 

50 

8 

85 

185 

68 

47 

116.6 

37.6 

9 

48.2 

7.2 

84 

183.2 

67.2 

46 

114.8 

36.8 

8 

46.4 

6.4 

83 

181.4 

66  4 

45 

113 

36 

7 

44.6 

5.6 

82 

179.6 

65.6 

44 

111.2 

35.2 

6 

42.8 

4.8 

81 

177.8 

64.8 

43 

109.4 

34.4 

5 

41 

4 

80 

176 

64 

42 

107.6 

33.6 

4 

39.2 

3.2 

79 

174.2 

63.2 

41 

105.8 

32.8 

3 

37.4 

2.4 

78 

172.4 

624 

40 

104 

32 

2 

35.6 

1.6 

77 

170.6 

61.6 

39 

102.2 

31.2 

1 

33  8 

.8 

76 

168.8 

60.8 

38 

100.4 

30.4 

0 

82 

0 

75 

167 

60 

37 

98.6 

29.6 

-1 

30.2 

-  .8 

74 

165.2 

59.2 

36 

96.8 

28.8 

-2 

28.4 

-1.6 

73 

163.4 

58.4 

35 

95 

28 

-3 

26.6 

-2.4 

72 

161.6 

57.6 

34 

93.2 

27.2 

-4 

24.8 

-3.2 

71 

159.8 

56.8 

33 

91.4 

26.4 

-5 

23 

-4 

70 

158 

56 

32 

89.6 

25.6 

-6 

21.2 

-4.8 

69 

156.2 

55.2 

31 

87.8 

24.8 

-7 

19.4 

-5.6 

68 

154  4 

54.4 

30 

86 

24 

-8 

17.6 

-6.4 

67 

152.6 

53  6 

29 

84.2 

23.2 

-9 

15.8 

-7.2 

66 

150.8 

52.8 

28 

82.4 

22.4 

-10 

14 

-8 

65 

149 

52 

27 

80.6 

21.6 

-11 

12.2 

-8.8 

64 

1472 

51.2 

26 

78.8 

20.8 

-12 

10.4 

-9.6 

63 

145.4 

50.4 

25 

77 

20 

830.  APPROX 

UN 

[MATE  TEMPERATURl 
riL  IT  HAS  THE  FOLI 

:s  OF  I] 
^OWINQ 

RON  WHEN  HEATED 
COLORS: 

op 

°C. 

op 

°0. 

Faint  rf^ 

977 

525 

Or 

9,nge .... 

2100 

1150 

Dark  re 
Cherrv- 

d 

1292 
1666 

700 
908 

Wl 
Da 

lite 

zzling  wl 

2370 
2730 

1300 

red  ... . 

lite.".'.'.'.'!! 

1500 

Bright  ( 

3herry-n 

id.'.'.'. 

1 

832 

1 

m  1 

J 

350      HANDBOOK    FOR    SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 


231.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  ALTERATION  OF  THE  VOLUME 
OF  GLASS  VESSELS  BY  HEAT,  THE  VOLUME  AT  lb"  C. 
BEING  TAKEN   AS  UNITY. 


(From  Bailey's  "  Chemist's  Pocket-Book.") 

Temp. 

Volume. 

Temp. 

"C. 

Volume. 

Temp. 
»C. 

Volume. 

0 

.99981210 

15 

1.00000000 

30 

1.00038790 

1 

.99963796     ! 

16 

1.00002586 

35 

1.00051720 

2 

.99966382 

17 

1.00005172 

40 

1 .0006^650 

3 

.99968968 

18 

1 .00007758 

45 

1.00077580 

4 

.99971554 

19 

1.00010344 

50 

1.00090510 

5 

.99974140 

20 

1  00012930 

55 

1 .00103440 

6 

.99976726 

81 

1.00015516 

60 

1.00116370 

7 

.99979313 

22 

1.00018102 

66 

1.00129300 

8 

.99981898 

23 

1 .00020688 

70 

1.00142230 

9 

.99984484 

24 

1.00023274 

75 

1.00155160 

10 

.99987070 

25 

1.00025860 

80 

1.00168090 

11 

.99989656 

26 

1.00028446 

85 

1.00181020 

12 

.99992242 

27 

1.00031032 

90 

1.00193950 

13 

.99i)94828 

28 

1.00033618 

95 

1.00206880 

14 

.99997414 

29 

1.00036204 

100 

1.002J9810 

833.  COEFFICIENTS  OF  EXPANSION   (CUBICAL)  OF  ORDINARY 
GLASS. 


Expansion  per  Degree  from— 

0°  C.  to  100"  c. 

0°  C.  to  150»  C. 

0°C.  feo200°C. 

0°  C.  to  250°  C. 

0°  C.  to  300°  C. 

.0000276 

.000028^1 

.0000291 

.0000298 

.0000306 

833.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  APPARENT  WEIGHT  OF  1,000 
MOHR'S  UNITS  (MOHR'S  LITRE)  OF  WATER  AT  DIFFER- 
ENT TEMPERATURES  AS  WEIGHED  WITH  BRASS  WEIGHTS 
IN  THE   AIR. 

Corrected  for  expansion  and  contraction  of  the  glass  container,  for 
temperatures  above  and  below  17^°  C.  Based  on  Payne's  Table, 
page  234.  


Apparent 
Weight. 


Temp. 

Apparent 

Temp. 

Apparent 
Weight. 

Temp. 

Apparent 
Weight. 

Temp. 

°(f. 

Weight. 

°C. 

"C. 

"C. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

Grams. 

15 

1000.3 

19 

999.8 

24 

998.8 

29 

16 

1000.2 

20 

999.6 

25 

998.6 

30 

17 

1000.1 

21 

999.4 

26 

998.4 

31 

>;^ 

1000.0 

22 

999.2 

27 

998.2 

32 

999.9 

23 

999.0 

28 

997.9 

33 

34 

Grams. 
997.6 
997.4 
997.1 
996.8 
996.5 
996.2 


The  above  table  may  be  used  in  the  graduation  of  sugaj'-flasks, 
burettes,  etc.,  to  Mohr's  units.  This  unit  is  the  volume  occupied  by  1 
gram  of  water,  as  weighed  with  brass  weights  in  the  air,  at  17)4°  O.,  and 
is  frequently  termed  "  Mohr's  cc." 

In  checking  a  litre  flask,  it  should  be  counterpoised  on  a  good  scale, 
and  the  number  of  grams  of  water  corresponding  to  its  tempetature 
run  into  it.  If  the  flask  be  correctly  graduated,  this  quantity  of  water 
should  fill  it  to  the  mark.  The  water  should  be  at  the  temperature  of 
the  laboratory.  The  same  principle  is  applied  in  checking  other  gradu- 
ated ware  to  Mohr's  units. 

For  methods  of  graduating  apparatus  to  true  cubic  centimetres,  see 
888, 


EXPANSIOl^^   OF   WATER. 


251 


234.  KOPP'S  TABLE,  SHOWING   THE   EXPANSION   OF   WATER 
FROM  0°  0.  TO  100°  C.  (32°  F.  TO  212°  F.). 


Temp.  °  C. 

Temp  °  F. 

Volume. 

Temp. »  C. 

Temp.  °  F. 

Volume. 

0 

32 

1.000000 

21 

69.8 

1  001776 

1 

33.8 

.999917 

22 

71.6 

1.001995 

2 

35.6 

.999908 

23 

73.4 

1.002225 

3 

37.4 

.999885 

24 

75.2 

1.002465 

4 

39.2 

.999877 

25 

77.0 

1.002715 

5 

41.0 

.999883 

30 

86.0 

1.004064 

6 

42.8 

.999903 

35 

95.0 

1.006697 

7 

44  6 

.999938 

40 

104.0 

1.00TO31 

8 

46.4 

.999986 

45 

113.0 

1.009541 

9 

48.2 

1.000048 

50 

122.0 

1.011766 

10 

50.0 

1.000124 

55 

131.0 

1.014100 

11 

51.8 

1.000213 

60 

140.0 

1.0i6590 

12 

53.6 

1.000314 

65 

149.0 

1.019302 

13 

55.4 

1.000429 

70 

158.0 

1.022246 

14 

57.2 

1.000556 

75 

167.0 

1  025440 

15 

59.0 

1.000695 

80 

176.0 

1.028581 

16 

608 

1.000846 

85 

185.0 

1.031894 

17 

62.6 

1.001010 

90 

194.0 

1.035397 

18 

64.4 

1.001184 

95 

203.0 

1.039094 

19 

66.2 

1.001370   ■ 

100 

212.0 

1.042986 

20 

68.0 

1.001567 

335.  TABLE  SHOWING    THE    EXPANSION  OF  WATER  AND  THE 
WEIGHT  OF  A  UNIT  VOLUME  AT  DIFFERENT  TEMPERATURES. 


(Abridgment  of  F. 

Rossetti's  Table.) 

°c. 

Weight. 

Volume. 

°C. 

Weight. 
4-4°  C.  =  1. 

Volume. 

+4°  C.  =  1. 

-f  4°C.  =  1. 

+  4°C.  =  1. 

+  4 

1.000000 

1.000000 

20 

0.998259 

1.001744 

5 

0.999990 

l.OOOOIO 

21 

0.998047 

1.001957 

6 

0.999970 

1.000030 

22 

0.997828 

1.002177 

7 

0.999933 

1.000067 

23 

0.997601 

1.002405 

8 

0.999886 

1.000114 

24 

0.997367 

1.002641 

9 

0.999824 

1.000176 

25 

0.997120 

1.002888 

10 

0.999747 

1.000253 

26 

0.996866 

1.003144 

11 

0.999655 

1.000a54 

27 

0.996603 

1.003408 

12 

0.999549 

1.000451 

28 

0.996331 

1.003682 

13 

0.999430 

1.000570 

29 

0.996051 

1.003965 

14 

0.999299 

1.000701 

30 

0.99575 

1.00425 

15 

0.999160 

1.000841 

31 

0.99547 

1.00455 

16 

0.999002 

1.000999 

32 

0.99517 

1.00486 

17 

0.998841 

1.000116 

33 

0.99485 

1.00518 

18 

0.998654 

1.001348 

34 

0.99452 

1.00551 

19 

0.998460 

1.001542 

35 

0.99418 

1.00586 

252       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 


236. 


TABLE   SHOWING   THE   VOLUME  OF  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS 
AT  DIFFERENT  TEMPERA.TURES.— (Gerlach.) 


Temp.°C. 

10  per  cent. 

20  per  cent. 

30  per  cent. 

40  per  cent. 

50  per  cent. 

0° 

10000 

10000 

10000 

10000 

10000 

5 

10004.5 

10007 

10009 

10012 

10016 

10 

10C12 

10016 

10021 

10026 

10032 

15 

10021 

10028 

10034 

10042 

10050 

20 

10033 

10041 

10049 

10058 

10069 

25 

10048 

.10057 

10066 

10075 

10088 

30 

10064 

10074 

10084 

10094 

10110 

35 

10082 

10092 

10108 

10114 

10132 

40 

10101 

10112 

10124 

10136 

10156 

45 

10122 

10134 

10146 

10160 

10180 

50 

10145 

10156 

10170 

10184 

10204 

55 

10170 

10183 

10196 

10210 

10229 

60 

10197 

10209 

10222 

10235 

10253 

65 

10225 

10236 

10249 

10261 

10278 

70 

10255 

10265 

10277 

10287 

10306 

75 

10284 

10295 

10306 

10316 

10332 

80 

10316 

10325 

10335 

10345 

10360 

85 

10347 

10355 

10365 

10375 

10388 

90 

10379 

10387 

10395 

10405 

10417 

95 

10411 

10418 

10425 

10435 

10445 

1  00 

10442 

10450 

.     10456 

10465 

10457 

237.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  C0NTRA.CT10N  OF  INVERT  SUGAR 

ON  DISSOLVING  IN  WATER  ;   ALSO,  THE  CONTRACTION 

OF  CANE-SUGAR  SOLUTIONS  ON  INVERSION. 

(From  "  Manuel  Agenda"  Gallois  and  Dupont.) 


Volunae. 

Contraotion. 

Specific  Gravity. 

Per  Cent 
Sugar, 

Cane-Sugar 
Solution. 

Invert-Sugar 
Solution. 

0 
6 
10 
15 
90 
25 

1.00000 
.99863 
.99744 
.99639 
.99546 
.99462 

0.00000 
0.00137 
0.00256 
0.00361 
0.00454 
0.00538 

1.0000 
1.0203 
1.0413 
1.0630 
1.0854 
1.1086 

1.0000 
1.0206 
1.0418 
1.0631 
1.0856 
1.1086 

238.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  BOIUNG-POINT  OF  SUGAR 

SOLUTIONS.-(Gbblach.) 

Strength  of  Solution, 

Boiling-point,  °  C. 

Boiling-point,  »  F. 

Per  cent. 

10 

100.4 

212.7 

SO 

100.6 

213,1 

80 

101 

213.8 

40 

101.5 

214.7 

60 

102 

215.6 

60 

103 

217.4 

70 

106.5 

223.7 

79 

112 

233.6 

90.8 

130 

266 

SOLUBILITY   OF   LIME   AND   SUGAR. 


253 


239.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  LIME  IN 
SOLUTIONS  OF  SUGAR. 


100   PARTS  OF  THE  RkSIDUH 

Sugar  in  100 

Density  of 
Sirup. 

Density  after 
saturation 
with  lime. 

DRIED  AT  1:20°  C.  contain: 

parts  water. 

Lime. 

Sugar. 

40 

1.122 

1.179 

21 

79 

35 

1.110 

1.166 

20.5 

79.5 

SO 

1.096 

1.148 

se.: 

:2.9 

S5 

1.082 

1.128 

19.8 

80.2 

ao 

^063 

1.104 

18.8 

81.2 

16 

1.052 

1.080 

18.5 

81.5 

10 

1.036 

1.053 

18.1 

81.9 

5 

1.018 

1.026 

15.3 

84.7 

240.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OP  SUGAR  IN 
WATER.— (After  Flourens.) 


Temp. 
°  C. 


Sugar. 
Per 
Cent. 


67 


Degree  Baum6 

at  the  ob 
served 
temper- 


ature. 


37 


at  15° 
C. 


34.6 

34.9 

35.2 

35.5 

35.7 

36.25 

36,7 

37.1 

37.5 

38.1 

38.7 


Temp. 
°  C. 


90 
95 
100 


Sugar. 
Per 
Cent. 


72.8 

74 

75 

76.1 

77.2 

78.35 

79.5 

80.6 

81.6 

82.5 


Degree  Baum6 

at  the  ob- 
served 
temper- 
ature. 


37.5 

37.9 

38.3 

38.6 

39 

39.3 

39.65 

39.95 

40.1 


at  15" 
C. 


39.3 

39.9 

40.55 

41.1 

41.7 

42.2 

42.8 

43.3 

43.7 

44.1 


241.  TABLE   SHOWING  THE   SOLUBILITY  OF  SUGAR  IN 
WATER.    (.Herzfeld.) 


Temp. 

Sugar. 

Temp. 

Sugar. 
Per  Cent. 

Temp. 

Sugar. 

°C. 

Per  Cent. 

°C. 

°C. 

Per  Cent. 

0 

64.18 

35 

69.55 

70 

76.22 

5 

64.87 

40 

70.42 

75 

77.27 

10 

65.58 

45 

71.32 

80 

78.36 

15 

66.53 

50 

72.25 

85 

79.46 

20 

67.09 

55 

73.20 

90 

80.61 

25 

67.89 

60 

74.18 

95 

81.77 

30 

67.80 

65 

75.88 

100 

82.97 

The  solubility  is  decreased  by  presence  of  a  small  quantity  of  organic 
or  inorganic  salts,  but  increased  by  a  large  quantity. 


354       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

242.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  SUGAR  IN  ALCOHOI 
AT  17.5°  C.    (Otto  Schrefeld.) 

(Zeit.  f.  Rubenzucker-Ind.,  44,  970.) 


Sucrose  in  Grams 

Alcohol  Per  Cent  by 

in  100  Grams  of  the 

Weight. 

Mixture  of  Alcohol  and 
Water  Solution. 

0 

66.20 

195.8 

5* 

64.25 

179.7 

10* 

62.20 

164.5 

15 

60.40 

152.5 

20*      . 

58.55 

141.2 

25 

56.20 

128.3 

30 

54.05 

117.8 

35 

51.25 

105.3 

40 

47.75 

91.3 

45 

43.40 

76.6 

50 

38.55 

62.7 

55 

32.80 

48.8 

60 

26.70 

36.4 

65 

19.50 

24.2 

70 

12.25 

13.9 

75 

7.20 

7.7 

80 

4.05 

4.2 

85 

2.10 

2.1 

90 

0.95 

0.09 

95 

0.15 

0.01 

Absolute 

0.00 

0.00 

Calculated. 


243.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  STRONTIA 
SUGAR  SOLUTIONS.    (Sidkrsky.) 


IN 


PerC< 

jtrontia  (SrO 

) 
ution. 

Strontia  (SrO) 

mt  of  the  So 

Per  Cent  of  the  Solution. 

Per  Cent 

i 

Per  Cent 
Sucrose. 

Sucrose. 

At 

At 

At 

At 

At 

At 

At 

At 

3«'C. 

15«C. 

24»  C. 

40°  C. 

3°C. 

15°  C. 

24°  C. 

40°  0. 

1 

0.45 

0.65 

0.70 

1.68 

11 

1.30 

1.57 

2.01 

3.75 

2 

0.53 

0.75 

0.83 

1.89 

12 

1.38 

1.66 

2.14 

3.96 

3 

0.62 

0.84 

0.96 

2.09 

13 

1.47 

1.75 

2.28 

4.16 

4 

0.70 

0.93 

1.09 

2.30 

14 

1.55 

1.84 

2.41 

4.37 

5 

0.79 

1.03 

1.22 

2.51 

15 

1.64 

1.94 

2.55 

4.58- 

6 

0.87 

1.12 

1.35 

2.72 

16 

1.72 

2.03 

2.69 

4.79 

7 

0.96 

1.21 

1.48 

2.92 

17 

1.81 

2.12 

2.83 

4.99 

8 

1.04 

1.30 

1.61 

3.13 

18 

1.90 

2.21 

2.97 

5.20 

9 

1.13 

1.39 

1.74 

3.33 

19 

1.99 

2.«) 

3.11 

5.41 

10 

1.21 

1.48 

1.87 

8.55 

20 

2.08 

2.39 

3.25 

5.61 

r 

■-»43a.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  BARYTA  IN 
■  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS. 


SOLUBILITY   OP   BARYTA,  ETC. 


(Pellet  and  Sencibr,  La  fabrication  du  Sucre,  1,  186.) 


255 


Sucrose  per  100  cc. 

Baryta  (BaO)                     Baryta  (BaO) 
per  100  cc.                    per  cent  Sucrose. 

2  5 

4.59 

18.3 

5 

5.46 

10.9 

7.5 

6.66 

87 

10 

7.96 

7.7 

12.5 

9.41 

7.5 

16 

10.00 

6.6 

20 

10.90 

5.4 

25 

12.90 

5.1 

30 

14.68 

4.9 

&43b.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  SOLUBILITY  OF  CERTAIN  SALTS 
IN   WATER  IN  THE   PRESENCE  OF  SUCROSE. 

(Jacobsthal,  Zeit.  Riibenzuckerind.,   18,  649;  taken  from  Sidersky's 
Traite  d'analyse  des  Matikres  Sucrees,  p.  11.) 


Solution  containing 

5% 
Sucrose. 

m 

Sucrose. 

15^ 
Sucrose. 

20% 
Sucrose. 

25j( 
Sucrose. 

Sulphate  of  calcium. 
Carb.  of  calcium 

Grams. 
2.095 
0.027 

Grams. 
1.946 
0.036 

Grams. 
1.593 
0.024 

Grams. 
1.539 
0.022 
0.008 
0.018 
1.454 
0.213 

Grams. 
1.333 
0.008 

Oxalate  of  calcium  . 
Phosph.  of  calcium  . 
Citrate  of  calcium... 
Carb.  of  magnesium 

0.033 
0.029 
1.813 
0.317 

0.047 
0.028 
1.578 
0.199 

0,012 
0  014 
1.505 
0.194 

0.001 
0.005 
1.454 
0.284 

266      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


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268       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


845.  FREEZING  MIXTURES.— (Walker's  List.) 


Tempkrature  Falls— 

Parts 

Centigrade. 

Fahrenheit. 

Reaumur. 

Ammonium  Nitrate.  ..It 
Water If 

Frora+   4°  .4 

From  -f  40° 

From  +  3°.5 

to  -  15°.5 

to +  4° 

to  -12°.4 

Ammonium  Chloride, .  5 
Potassium  Nitrate  ....  5  V 
Water 16 

From  + 10° 
to  - 12°.2 

From  -f  50° 
to +  10° 

From  +  8° 
to  -  9°.8 

Ammonium  Chloride..  5^ 
Potassium  Nitrate  ....  5  ! 

Sodium  Sulphate 8  f 

Water IGJ 

Sodium  Nitrate 3| 

Nitric  Acid,  diluted....  2f 

From  + 10° 

From  +  50° 

to +  4° 

From  +  8° 

to  -  15°. 5 

to  -12°.4 

From  + 10° 

From  4-  50° 

From  +  8° 

to  -  19°  .4 

to -3° 

to  -15°.5 

Ammonium  Nitrate. . .  1 
Sodium  Carbonate ....  1  V 
Water 1 

From  +  10° 
to  -  21°.7 

From  +  10° 

From  +  50° 

to  -  7° 

From  +  50° 

From  +  8° 
to  -17°.3 

Sodium  Phosphate. . . .  9  | 
Nitric  Acid,  diluted...  4f 

From  -f  8° 

to  -  24°. 4 

to  -  12° 

to  -19°.5 

Sodium  Sulphate 51 

Sulphuric  Acid,  dilut..  4  | 

From  + 10° 

From  +  50° 

From  +  8° 

to  -  16°.l 

to  4-3° 

to  ~12°.9 

Sodium  Sulphate......  6") 

Ammonium  Chloride..  4  [ 

From  +  iO° 

From  +  50° 

From  4-  8° 

Potassium  N  itrate ....  2  ( 
Nitric  Acid,  diluted....  4 J 

to  -  23°.3 

to  -  10° 

to  -18°.« 

Sodium  Sulphate 6 

Ammonium  Nitrate.. .  5  V 
Nitric  Acid,  diluted....  4 

From  + 10° 
to  -40° 

From  -f  50° 
to-  40° 

From  -f  8° 
to -32° 

Snow  or  pounded  ice..  2  1 
Sodium  Chloride  (com-     V 

to  -  20°.5 

to -5° 

to  -  16°.4 

mon  salt) 1 ) 

Snow  or  pounded  ice. .  5^ 

Sodium  Chloride  (com-     1 

mon  salt) 2  ] 

to  -  24°  .4 

to -12° 

to  -  19-.5 

Ammonium  Chloride. .  1 J 

Snow  or  pounded  ice.  24"] 
Sodium  Chloride  (com- 

mon salt) 10  i- 

to  -  27°.7 

to -18° 

to  -  22°  .8 

Ammonium  Chloride..  5 

Potassium  Nitrate...  5  J 

Snow  or  pounded  ice.  .12") 

Sodium  Chloride  (.com-     1 
mon  salt) 5  [ 

to  -  31°.6 

to -25° 

to  -  25°  .3 

Ammonium  Nitrate. . .  5  J 

Snow 31 

Sulphuric  Acid,  dilu'd  2  f 

From  0° 

From  -1-  32° 

From  0° 

to  -  30°.5 

to  -23° 

to  -  24°.4 

Snow 8/ 

Hydrochloric  Acid....  Sf 

From  0° 

From  +  32° 

From  0° 

to  -  32°.8 

to  -  27° 

to  -  26».2 

Snow 7) 

Nitric  Acid,  diluted...  4f 

From  0° 

From  +  32° 

From  0° 

to  -  34°.4 

to -30° 

to  -  27°. 5 

Snow 41 

Calcium  Chloride             V 
(Chlorideof  Lime)..  5  J 

From  0° 
to  -  40° 

From  +  32° 
to  -  40° 

FromO° 
to -32° 

Snow 2 

Calcium  Chloride,            V 
crystallized 3 ) 

From  0° 
to  -  45°.5 

From  -f  32° 
to  -  50° 

From  0° 
to  -  36°.4 

Snow 3 

Potash 4 

From  0° 

From  -j-  32° 

From  0° 

to  -  46°.l 

to  -  51° 

to  -  36°.9 

STRENGTH    OF   SULPHURIC   ACID. 


269 


246.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SULPHURIC  ACID 
(OIL  OF  VITRIOL)  OF  DIFFERENT  DENSITIES,  AT  15°  CENTI. 
GRADE.— (Otto's  Table.) 


Per  Cent 

of     . 

H2SO4. 

Specific 

Percent 
of 

SO3. 

Per  Cent 

of 

H2SO4. 

Specific 

Per  Cent 
of 
SO3. 

Gravity. 

Gravity. 

100 

1.8426 

81  63 

50 

1.3980 

40.81 

99 

1  8420 

80.81 

49 

1.3806 

40.00 

98 

1.8406 

80.00 

48 

1.3790 

39.18 

97 

1.8400 

79.18 

47 

1.3700 

38.36 

96 

1  8384 

78  36 

46 

1.3610 

37.55 

95 

1.8376 

77.55 

45 

1.3510 

36.73 

94 

1.835C 

76.73 

44 

1.3420 

35.82 

93 

1.8340 

75.91 

43 

1.3330 

35.10 

92 

1.8310 

75.10 

42 

1.3240 

34.28 

91 

1.8270 

74.28 

41 

1.3150 

33.47 

90 

1.8220 

73.47 

40 

1.3060 

32.65 

89 

1.8100 

72.65 

39 

1.2976 

31.83 

88 

1.8090 

71.83 

38 

1.2890 

31.02 

87 

1.8020 

71  02 

37 

1.2810 

30.20 

86 

1.7940 

70.10 

36 

1.2720 

29.38 

85 

1.7860 

69.38 

35 

1.2640 

28.57 

84 

1.7770 

68.57 

34 

1.2560 

27.75 

83 

1.7670 

67.75 

83 

1.2476 

26.94 

82 

1.7560 

66.94 

32 

1.2390 

26.12 

81 

1.7450 

66.12 

31 

1.2310 

25.30 

80 

1.7340 

6.?.?C 

on 

1.22CC 

24.49 

79 

1.7220 

64.48 

29 

1.2150 

23.67 

78 

1.7100 

63.67 

28 

1.2066 

22.85 

77 

1.6980 

62.85 

27 

1.1980 

22  03 

76 

1.6860 

6v>.04 

26 

1.1900 

21.22 

75 

1.6750 

61.22 

25 

1.1820 

20.40 

74 

1.6630 

60.40 

24 

1.1740 

19.58 

73 

1.6510 

59.59 

23 

1.1670 

18.77 

72 

1.6390 

58.77 

22 

1.1590 

17.95 

71 

1.6270 

57.95 

21 

1.1516 

17.14 

70 

1.6150 

57.14 

20 

1.1440 

16.32 

69 

1.6040 

56.32 

19 

1.1360 

15.51 

68 

1.5920 

55.59 

18 

1.1290 

14.69 

67 

1.5800 

54.69 

17 

1.1810 

13.87 

66 

1.5860 

53.87 

16 

1.1136 

13.06 

65 

1.5570 

53.05 

15 

1.1060 

12.24 

64 

1.5450 

52.22 

14 

1.0980 

11.42 

68 

1.5340 

51.42 

13 

1.0910 

10.61 

62 

1..5230 

50.61 

12 

1.0830 

9.79 

61 

1.5123 

49.79 

11 

1.0756 

8.98 

60 

1.5010 

48.98 

10 

1.0680 

8.16 

59 

1.4900 

48.16 

9 

1.0610 

7.34 

58 

1.4800 

47.34 

8 

1.0536 

6.53 

57 

1.4690 

46.53 

7 

1.0464 

5.71 

56 

1.4586 

45.71 

6 

1.0390 

4.89 

55 

1.4480 

44.89 

5 

1.0320 

4.08 

54 

1.4380 

44.07 

4 

1.0256 

3.26 

53 

1.4280 

43.26 

3 

1.0190 

2.44 

52 

1.4180 

42.45 

2 

1.0130 

1.63 

51 

1.4080 

41.63 

1 

1.0064 

0.81 

1370       HAITDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

847.  ANTHON'S    TABLE    FOR  THE  DILUTION   OF  SULPHURIC^ 
ACID. 


To  100 

To  100 

To  100 

parts  of 
Water  at 

paits  of 
Water  at 

parts  of 

Water  at 

15°  to  20°  C 

Specific 

15°  to  20°  C. 

Specific 

15°  to  20°  C. 

Specific 

add... parts 

Gravity  of 

add...  parts 

Gravity  of 

add.  .parts 

Gravity  of 

diluted 

diluted 

of 

diluted 

Sulphuric 

Acid. 

Sulphuric 

Acid. 

Sulphuric 
Acid  of  1.84 

Acid. 

Acid  of  1.84 

Acid  of  1.84 

Specific 

Specific 

Specific 

Gravity. 

Gravity. 

Gravity. 

1 

1.009 

130 

1.456 

370 

1.723 

2 

1.015 

140 

1.473 

380 

1.727 

5 

1.035 

150 

1.490 

390 

1.730 

10 

1.060 

160 

1.510 

400 

1.733 

15 

1.090 

170 

1.5.30 

410 

1.737 

20 

1.113 

180 

1  543 

420 

1.740 

25 

1.140 

190 

1.556 

430 

1.743 

30 

1.165 

200 

1.568 

440 

1.746 

35 

1.187 

210 

1.580 

450 

1.750 

40 

1.210 

I          220 

1..593 

460 

1.754 

45 

1.229 

230 

7.606 

470 

1.757 

50 

1.248 

240 

1.620 

480 

1.760 

55 

1.265 

250 

1  630 

490 

1.763 

60 

1.280 

260 

1.640 

500 

1.766 

65 

1.297 

270 

1.648 

510 

1.768 

70 

1.312 

280 

1.6.54 

520 

1.770 

75 

1.326 

290 

1.667 

530 

1.772 

80 

1.340 

300 

1.678 

540 

1.774 

85 

1.357 

310 

1.689 

550 

1.776 

90 

1.372 

320 

1.700 

560 

1.777 

95 

1.3S6 

3:30 

1.705 

580 

1.778 

100 

1.398 

340 

1.710 

590 

l.-iSO 

110 

1.420 

350 

1.714 

600 

1.782 

120 

1.438 

360 

1.719 

848.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  NITRIC  ACID  (HNO3) 

BY  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY.    HYDRATED  AND  ANHYDRIDE. 

Temperature  15°. 

(Fresenius,  Zeitschrift  f.  analyt.  Chemie.  5.  449.) 


Sp.  dr. 

100  PARTS  CONTAIN— 

Sp.  Gr. 
at  15°  C. 

100  PARTS  CONTAIN— 

at  15°  C. 

N2O9 

NO3H 

N2O5 

NO3H 

1.530 

85.71 

100.00 

1.488 

75.43 

68.00 

1.530 

85.57 

99.84 

1.486 

74  95 

87.45 

1.530 

85.47 

99.72 

1.482 

73.86 

86.17 

1.529 

85.30 

99.52 

1.478 

72.86 

65.00 

1.523 

83.90 

97.89 

1.474 

72.00 

84.00 

1.520 

83.14 

97.00 

1.470 

71.14 

83.00 

1.516 

82  28 

96.00 

1.467 

70.28 

82.00 

1.514 

81.66 

95.27 

1.463 

69.39 

60.96 

1.509 

80.57 

94.00 

1.460 

68.57 

80.00 

1.506 

79.72 

93.01 

1.456 

67.71 

79.00 

1.503 

78.85 

92  00 

1.451 

66.56 

77.66 

1.499 

78.00 

91.00 

1.445 

65,14 

76.00 

1.495 

77.15 

90.00 

1.442 

64.28 

75.00 

1.494 

76.77 

89.56 

1.438 

63.44 

74.01 

STREKGTH   OF   NITRIC   ACID,   ETC. 


271 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  NITRIC  ACID.- 

-Continued. 

Sp.  Gr. 

100  PARTS  CONTAIN—     | 

Sp.  Gr. 
at  15°  C. 

100  PARTS  CONTAIN — 

at  15°  C. 

N^Os 

NOsH 

N,05 

NO3H 

1.435 

62  57 

73.00 

1.295 

39.97 

46.64 

1.432 

62.05 

72.39 

1.284 

38.57 

45.00 

1.429 

61.06 

71.24 

1.274 

37.31 

43.53 

1.423 

60.00 

69.96* 

1.264 

36.00 

42.00 

1.419 

59.31 

69.20 

1.257 

35.14 

41.00 

1.414 

58.29 

68.00 

1.251 

34.28 

40.00 

1.410 

57.43 

6700 

1.244 

33.43 

39.00 

1.405 

56.57 

66.00 

1.237 

32  53 

37.95 

1.400 

55.77 

65.07 

1.225 

30.86 

36.00 

1.395 

54.85 

64.00 

1.218 

29.29 

35.00 

1.393 

54.50 

63.59 

1.211 

29.02 

33.86 

1.386 

53.14 

62.00 

1.198 

27.43 

32.00 

1.381 

52.46 

61.21 

1.192 

26,57 

31.00 

1.374 

51.43 

60.00 

1.185 

25.71 

30.00 

1.372 

51.08 

59.59 

1.179 

24.85 

29.00 

1.368 

50.47 

58.88 

1.172 

24.00 

28.00 

1.363 

49.71 

58.00 

1.166 

23.14 

27.00 

1.858 

48.86 

57  00 

1.157 

22.04 

25.71 

1.353 

48.08 

56.10 

1.138 

19.71 

23.00 

1.346 

47.14 

55.00 

1.120 

17.14 

20.00 

1.341 

46.29 

54.00 

1.105 

14.97 

17.47 

1.339 

46.12 

53.81t 

1.089 

12.85 

15.00 

1.335 

45.40 

53.00 

1  077 

11.14 

13.00 

1.331 

44.85 

52  33 

1.067 

9.77 

11.41 

1.393 

43.70 

50.99 

1.045 

6.62 

7.22 

1.317 

42.83 

49.97 

1.022 

3.42 

4.00 

1.312 

42.00 

49.00 

1.010 

1.71 

2.00 

1.304 

41.14 

48.00 

0.999 

0.00 

0.00 

1.298 

40.44 

47.18 

♦  Formula :  NOjH  -f-  l^^HaO. 


t  Formula :  NOsH  +3HaO. 


349.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  OF  CaO  IN  MILK  OF 

LIME  OF  VARIOUS  DENSITIES  AT  15°  C. 

(From  Blatner's  Table.) 


Weight 

Weight 

Deg. 
Brix. 

Decree 
Baum6. 

of  one 
litre. 

Milk  of 
Lime. 

CaO 

per 
litre. 

Per 
Cent 
CaO. 

Brix. 

Degree 
Baum6. 

of  one 

litre. 

Milk  of 

Lime. 

CaO 
per 
litre. 

Per 
Cent 
CaO. 

Grams. 

GramB. 

Grams. 

Gram>. 

1.7 

1 

1007 

7.5 

0.745 

28.4 

16 

1125 

159 

14.13 

3.5 

2 

1014 

16.5 

1.64 

30.3 

17 

1134 

170 

15 

5.3 

3 

1022 

26 

2.54 

32.1 

18 

1142 

181 

15.85 

7  0 

4 

1029 

36 

3.5 

as. 9 

19 

1152 

193 

16.75 

8.8 

5 

1037 

46 

4.43 

35.7 

20 

1162 

206 

17.72 

10  6 

6 

1045 

56 

5.36 

37.5 

21 

1171 

218 

18.61 

Vi.a 

7 

1052 

65 

6.18 

39.4 

22 

1180 

229 

19.4 

HA 

8 

1060 

75 

7.08 

41.2 

23 

1190 

242 

20.34 

15.9 

9 

1067 

84 

7.87 

43.1 

24 

1200 

255 

21.25 

17.7 

10 

1075 

94 

8.74 

44  9 

25 

1210 

268 

22.15 

19.5 

11 

1083 

104 

9.6 

46.8 

26 

1220 

281 

23.03 

21.3 

12 

1091 

115 

10  54 

48.6 

27 

1231 

295 

23.96 

23.0 

13 

1100 

126 

11.45 

50.5 

28 

1241 

309 

24.9 

.24  8 

14 

1108 

137 

12.35 

52.4 

29 

1252 

324 

25.87 

26.6 

15 

1116 

148 

13.26 

54.3 

30 

1263 

339 

26.84 

273       HAl^DBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSR  CHEMISTS. 


»»0.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  HYDROCHLORIC 

ACID  (Muriatic  Acid)  SOLUTIONS. 

Temperature,  15°  C. 

(Graham-Otto's  Lehrb.  d.  Chem.  3  Aufl.  II.  Bd.  1.  Abth.  p.  382.) 


8p.Gr 


HCl. 


1.2000 
1.198;! 
1.1964 
1.1946 
1.1928 
1.1910 
1 .  1893 
1.1875 
1.1857 
1.1846 
1.1822 
1.1802 
1.1782 
1.1762 
1.1741 
1.1721 
1.17011 
1.16811 
1.16611 
1.164l! 
1.1620, 
1.1599, 
1.1578! 
1.1557i 
1.15371 
1.1515J 
1.1494; 
1.1473i 
1.1452! 
1.1431! 
1.1410 
1.1389 
1.1369 
1.1349, 


40.777 
40.869 
39.961 
39.554 
39.146 
38.738 
38.330 
37.923 
37.516 
37.108 
36.700 
38  292 
35.884 
35.476 
35.068 
34.660 
34.252 
33.845 
33.437 
33.029 
32.621 
32.213 
31.805 
31.398 
30.990 
30.582 
30.174 
29.767 
29.359 
28.951 
28.544 
28.136 
27.728 
27.321 


CI. 


39.675 
39.278 
38.882 
38.485 
38.089 
37.692 
37.296 
36.900 
36.503 
36.107 
35.707 
35.310 
34.913 
34.517 
34.121 
33.724 
33.328 
32  931 
32.535 
32.136 
31.746 
31.343 
30.946 
30.550 
30.153 
29.757 
29.361 
28.964 
28.567 
28.171 
27.772 
27.376 
26.979 
26.583 


Sp.Gr 


1.1328 
1.1308 
1.1287 
1.126' 
1.1247 
1.1226 
1.1206 
1.1185 
1.1164 
1.1143 
1.1123 
1.1102 
1.1082 
1.1061 
1.1041 
1.1020 
1.1000 
1.0980 
1.0960 
1.0939 
1.0919 
1.0899 
1.0879 
1.0859 
1.0838 
1.0^18 
1.0798 
1.0778 
1.0758 
1.0738 
1.0718 
1.0697 
1.0677 


HCl. 


26.913 
26.505 


25.282 
24.874 
24.466 
24.058 
23.650 
23.242 
22.834 
22.426 
22.019 
21.611 
21.203 
20.796 
20.388 
19.980 
19.572 
19.165 
18.757 
18.349 
17.941 
17.534 
17.126 
16.718 
16.310 
15  902 
lg.494 
15.087 
14.679 
14.271 
13.863 


CI. 


26.186 
25.789 
25.392 
24.996 
24.599 
24.202 
23.805 
23.408 
23.012 
22.615 
22.218 
21.822 
21.425 
2!. 028 
20.632 
20.235 
19.837 
19.440 
19.044 
18.647 
18.250 
17.854 
17.457 
17.060 
16.664 
16.267 
15.870 
15.474 
15.077 
14.680 
14.284 
13.887 
13.490 


Sp.  Gr. 


1.06.57 
1.0637 
1.0617 
1.0597 
1.0577 
1.0557 
1.0537 
1.0517 
1.0497 
1.0477 
1.0457 
1.0437 
1.0417 
1.0397 
1.0377 
l.a357 
1.0337 
1.0318 
1.0298 
1.0279 
1.0259 
1.0239 
1.0220 
1.0200 
1.0180 
1.0160 
1.0140 
1  0120 
1  0100 
1.0080 
1.0060 
1.0040 
1.0020 


HCl. 


CI. 


13.456 
13.049  ' 
12,641  I 
12.233  I 
11.825  I 
11.418  I 
11.010  ! 
10.602  I 
10.194  i 
9.786  I 


13.094 
12.697 
12.300 
11.903 
11.506 
11.109 
10.712 
10.318 
9.919 
9.522 
9.126 


8.971 

8.729 

8.563 

8.332 

8.155 

7.935 

7.747 

7.538 

7.340 

7.141 

6.932 

6.745 

6.524 

6.348 

6.116 

5.951 

5.709 

5.554 

5.301 

5.158 

4.893 

4  762 

4.486 

4.365 

4.078 

3.968 

3.670 

3.. 571 

3.262 

3  174 

2.854 

2.778 

2.447 

2.381 

2.039 

1.984 

1.631 

1.588 

1.124 

1.191 

0.816 

0.795 

0.408 

0.397 

351.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  AMOUNT  Si  CaO  IN  MILK  OF 
LIME  OF  VARIOUS  DENSITIES.-(Mategczek.) 


1  kilo  CaO 

1  kilo  CaO 

Degree 

Degree 

per .  .  litres 

Degree 

Degree 

per .  .  litres 

Brlx. 

Baume. 

Milk  of 
Lime. 

Brix. 

Baum6. 

Milk  of 
Lime. 

18 

10 

7.50 

38.3 

21 

4.28 

20 

11 

7.10 

40.2 

22 

4.16 

21.7 

12 

6.70 

42.0 

23 

4.05 

23.5 

13 

6.30 

43  9 

24 

3.95 

25.3 

14 

5.88 

45.8 

25 

3.87 

27.2 

15 

5.50 

47.7 

26 

3.81 

29 

16 

5.25 

49.6 

29 

3.75 

30.9 

17 

5  01 

51.6 

28 

3  70 

32.7 

18 

4.80 

53.5 

29 

3.65 

34.6 

19 

4.68 

55.5 

30 

3.60 

86.5 

20 

4.42 

SODIUM   OXTDE,  ETC.,  IN"   VARIOUS   SOLUTIONS.   273 

352.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  SODIUM  OXIDE  IN 
SOLUTIONS  OF  VARIOUS  DENSITIES." 


(Fresenius  Anl 

.  z.  quant.  Analyse 

V.  Aufl.  f 

730.) 

According  to 

DAI.TON. 

ACCOEDINQ 

TO  TUNNERMANN  AT    15'  C 

Sp.  Gr. 

Per 
Cent 
NaaO, 

Sp.  Gr. 

Per  Cent 
Na^O. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Per  Cent 
NaaO. 

Sp.  Gr. 

Per 
Cent 
NajO. 

2.00 

77.8 

1.4285 

30.220 

1.2982 

20.550 

1.1528 

10.275 

1.85 

63.6 

1.4193 

29.616 

1.2912 

19.945 

1.1428 

9.670 

1.72 

53.8 

1  4101 

29.011 

1.2843 

i9.;mi 

1.1330 

9.066 

1.63 

46.6 

1.4011 

28.407 

1.2775 

18.730 

1.1233 

8.406 

1.56 

41.2 

1.3923 

27.802 

1  1.2708 

18.132 

1.1137 

7.857 

1.50 

36.8 

1.3836 

87.200 

1.2642 

17.528 

1.1042 

7.253 

1.47 

34.0 

1.3751 

26.594 

1.2578 

16.923 

1.0948 

6.648 

1.44 

31.0 

1.8668 

25  989 

1  2515 

16.319 

1.0^55 

6.044 

1.40 

29.0 

1.3.586 

25.385 

1.2453 

15.714 

1.0764 

5.440 

1.36 

26.0 

1.3.-)05 

24.780 

1.2.392 

15.110 

1.0675 

4.835 

1.32 

23.0 

1.3426 

24.176 

1  2280 

14.506 

1.0587 

4.231 

1.29 

19.0 

1.3:349 

23  572 

1.2178 

13.901 

1.0500 

3.626 

1.23 

16.0 

1.3273 

22.967 

1.2058 

13.297 

1.0414 

3.022 

1.18 

13.0 

1.3198 

22.363 

1.1948 

12.692 

1.0330 

2.418 

1.12 

9.0 

1.3143 

21.894 

1.1841 

12.088 

1.0246 

1  813 

1.06 

4.7 

1.3125 

21.758 

1.1734 

11.484 

1.0163 

1.209 

1.3053 

21.154 

1.1630 

10.879 

1.0081 

0.604 

853.    TABLE  SHOWING  THE  QUANTITY  OF  POTASSIO  OXIDE 
IN  SOLUTIONS  OF  VARIOUS  DENSITIES. 


(Fresenius 

Anl.  z.  quant.  Analyse.  V 

.  Aufl.  f.  730. 

) 

According  to 
Dalton. 

According  to  Tunnermann  at 

15°  C. 

Sp.  Gr. 

K2O. 
Per  Cent. 

Sp.  Gr. 

KjO. 
Per  Cent. 

Sp.  Gr. 

K2O. 
Per  Cent, 

1.68 

51.2 

1.3300 

28.290 

1.1437 

14.145 

1.60 

47.7 

1.3131 

27.158 

1.1308 

13.013 

1.52 

42.9 

1.2966 

26.027 

1.1182 

11.882 

1.47 

39.9 

1.2803 

24.895 

1.1059 

10.750 

1.44 

36.8 

1.2648 

23.764 

1.0938 

9.619 

1.42 

34.4 

1.2493 

22.632 

1.0819 

8.487 

1.39 

32.4 

1.2.342 

21.500 

1  0703 

7.355 

1.36 

294 

1.2268 

20.935 

1.0589    . 

..  6.224 

1.32 

26.3 

1.2122 

19.803 

1.0478 

5.002 

1.28 

23.4 

1.1979 

18.671 

1 .0369 

3.961 

1.23 

19.5 

1.1839 

17  540 

1.0260 

2.829 

1.19 

16.2 

1.1702 

16.408 

1.0153 

1.697 

1.15 

13.0 

1.1568 

15.277 

1.0050 

0.5658 

1.11 

9.5 

1.06 

4.7 

274       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE    CHEMISTS. 

254.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  STRENGTH  OF  SOLUTIONS  OF 
AMMONIA  BY  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  AT  14°  C.-(Abridged  from 
Camus'  Table.) 


Per  Cent 

Ammonia 

(NH3). 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Per  Cent 
Ammonia 

(NH3). 

Specific 
Gravity. 

Per  Cent 
Ammonia 

(NH3). 

Specific 
Gravity. 

1. 

0.9959 

13. 

0.9484 

25. 

0.9106 

1.4 

0.9941 

13.4 

0.9470 

25.4 

0.9094 

2. 

0.9915 

14. 

0.9449 

26. 

0.9078 

2.4 

0  9899 

14.4 

0.9434 

264 

0.9068 

3. 

0  9873 

15. 

0.9414 

27. 

0.9052 

3.4 

0.9655 

15.4 

0.9400 

27.4 

0.9041 

4. 

0.9831 

16. 

0.9380 

28. 

0.9026 

4.4 

0.9815 

16.4 

0.9366 

28.4 

0.9016 

5. 

0.9790 

17. 

0.9347 

29. 

0.9001 

5.4 

0.9773 

17.4 

0.9333 

29.4 

0.8991 

6. 

0.9749 

18. 

0.9314 

30. 

0.8976 

6.4 

0.9733 

18.4 

0.9302 

30.4 

0.89()7 

7. 

0.9709 

19. 

0  9283 

31. 

0.8953 

7.4 

0.9693 

19.4 

0  9271 

31.4 

0.8943 

8. 

0.9670 

20. 

0.9251 

32. 

0.8929 

8.4 

0.9654 

20.4 

0.9239 

32.4 

0.8920 

9. 

0.9631 

21. 

0.9221 

33. 

0.8907 

9.4 

0.9616 

21.4 

0.9209 

33.4 

0.8898 

10. 

0.9593 

22. 

0.9191 

34. 

0.8885 

10.4 

0.9578 

22.4 

0  9180 

34.4 

0.8877 

11. 

0.9556 

23. 

0  9162 

35. 

0.8864 

11.4 

0.9542 

23.4 

0.9150 

35.4 

0.8856 

12. 

0.9.^20 

24. 

0.9133 

3C. 

0.8844 

12.4 

0.9505 

24.4 

0.9122 

»65.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  PERCENTAGE  OF  ACETATE  OF 
LEAD  IN  SOLUTIONS  OF  THE  SALT,  OF  DIFFERENT  DEN- 
SITIES, AT  15°  C— (Gerlach.) 


Specific 

Per  Cent  of 

Specific 

Per  Cent  of 

Specific 

Per  Cent 

Gravity. 

the  Salt. 

Gravity. 

the  Salt. 

Gravity. 

of  the  Salt. 

1.0127 

2 

1.1384 

20 

1.2768 

36 

1.0255 

4 

1.1544 

22 

1.2966 

38 

1.0386 

6 

1.1704 

24 

1.3163 

40 

1.0520 

8 

1.1869 

26 

1  3376 

42 

1.0654 

10 

1.2040 

28 

1.3588 

44 

1.0796 

12 

1.2211 

30 

1.3810 

46 

1.0739 

14 

1.2395 

32 

1  4011 

48 

1.1084 

16 

1.2578 

34 

1.4271 

50 

1.1234 

18 

DEGREES  BRIX  AND  BAUME  AND  SP.  GR.  OF  SUGAR.  275 


56.  TABLE  SHOWING  A  COMPARISON  OF  THE  DEGREES  BRIX 
AND  BAUME,  AND  OF  THE  SPECIFIC  GRAVITY  OF  SUGAR 
SOLUTIONS  AT  17»^°  C. -(Stammer.) 


I . 

VS  2i 

o^ 

I  i 

.1 

o^ 

I  i 

,|f 

v^ 

Degree 
Brix  ( 
Cent 
Sugar 

P 

fill 

PI 

CO 

0.0 

0.0 

1.00000 

3.0 

1.7 

1.01173 

6.0 

3.4 

1.02373 

.1 

0.1 

1.00038 

.1 

1.8 

1.01213 

.1 

35 

1.02413 

.2 

0.1 

1.00077 

.2 

1.8 

1.01252 

.2 

3.5 

1.02454 

.3 

02 

1.00116 

.3 

1.9 

1.01292 

.3 

3  6 

1.02494 

.4 

0.2 

1.00155 

.4 

1.9 

1.01332 

.4 

3.6 

1.02535 

.5 

0.3 

1.00193 

.5 

2.0 

1.01371 

.5 

3.7 

1.02575 

.6 

0.3 

1.00232 

.6 

20 

1.01411 

.6 

3.7 

1.02616 

.7 

0.4 

1.00271 

.7 

2.1 

1.01451 

.7 

3.8 

1.02657 

.8 

0.45 

1.00310 

8 

2.2 

1.01491 

.8 

3.9 

1.02694 

.9 

0.5 

1.00349 

.9 

2.2 

1.01531 

.9  ■ 

3.9 

1.02738 

1.0 

0.6 

1.00388 

4.0 

2.3 

1.01570 

7.0 

4.0 

1.02779 

.1 

0.6 

1.00427 

.1 

2.3 

1.01610 

.1 

4.0 

1.02819 

.2 

0.7 

1.00466 

.2 

2.4 

1 .01650 

.2 

4.1 

1.02860 

.3 

0.7 

1.00505 

.3 

2.4 

1.01690 

.3 

4.1 

1.02901 

.4 

0.8 

1.00544 

.4 

2.5 

1.01730 

.4 

4.2 

1.02942 

.5 

0.85 

1.00583 

.5 

2.55 

1.01770 

.5 

4.25 

1.02983 

.6 

0  9 

1.00622 

.6 

2.6 

1.01810 

.6 

4.3 

1.03024 

.7 

1.0 

1.00662 

.7 

2.7 

1.01850 

.7 

4.4 

1.03064 

.8 

1.0 

1.00701 

.8 

2.7 

1.01890 

.8 

4.4 

1.03105 

.9 

1.1 

1.00740 

.9 

2.8 

1.01930 

.9 

4.5 

1.03146 

2.0 

1.1 

1.00'/V9 

5.0 

2.8 

1.01970 

8.0 

4.5 

1.03187 

.1 

1  2 

1.00818 

.1 

2.9 

1.02010 

.1 

4.6 

1 .03228 

.8 

1.2 

1.00858 

.2 

2.95 

1.02051 

.2 

4.6 

1.03270 

.3 

1.3 

1.00897 

.3 

3.0 

1.02091 

.3 

4.7 

1 .a3311 

.4 

1.4 

1.00936 

.4 

3.1 

1.02131 

.4 

4.8 

1.03352 

.5 

1.4 

1.00976 

.5 

3.1 

1.02171 

.5 

4.8 

1 .03393 

.6 

1.5 

1.01015 

.6 

3.2 

1.02211 

.6 

4.9 

1.03434 

.7 

1.5 

1.01055 

.7 

3.2 

1.02«5« 

.7 

4.9 

1.03475 

.8 

1.6 

1.01094 

.8 

3.3 

1.02292 

.8 

5.0 

1.03517 

.9 

1.6 

1.01134 

.9 

3.35 

1.02333 

.9 

5.0 

1.03558 

CORRECTION  FOR  TEMPERATURE, 

BRIX  SPINDLE.-(Gerlach.) 

Approximate  Degree 

Temp. 
°C. 

Temp. 

°F. 

Brix 

AND  Correction. 

0 

6 

10 

15 

13 

55.4 

.14 

.18 

.19 

.21 

-tl     Note.— For    temperatures 

14 

57.2 

.12 

.15 

.16 

.17 

§  .above  171^°  C.  add  the  cor- 

15 

59. 

.09 

.11 

.12 

.14 

is  reetion  to  the  reading  at  the 

16 

60.8 

.06 

.07 

.08 

.09 

,•£  observed  temperature;    be- 

17 

62.6 

.02 

.02 

.03 

.03 

cc  low  173^°  subtract. 

18 

64.4 

.02 

.m 

.m 

.03 

19 

66.2 

.06 

.08 

.08 

.09 

20 

68. 

.11 

.14 

.15 

17 

21 

69  8 

.16 

20 

22 

24 

_-•     Obtain  6aum6  corrections 

22 

71.6 

.21 

.26 

.29 

.31 

-o  from  the  corresponding  de- 

23 

73.4 

.27 

.32 

.35 

.37 

<  gree  Brix. 

24 

75.2 

.32 

.38 

.41 

.43 

25 

77. 

.37 

.44 

.47 

.49 

276       HAN^DBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE    SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF    THE    DEGREES    BRIX 
AND  BAUME',  etc.,  OF  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS.— Cow^nited. 


OC  —  D  3 

ill 

bc§^ 

It 

ill 

gree 
rix  (Per 
ent 
agar). 

SO)  2 

m 

it 

^V^OfXl 

«=^I 

^0QOc» 

a«l 

^ 

^mocc 

«"1 

^ 

9.0 

5.1 

1.03599 

12.0 

6.8 

1.04852 

15.0 

8.5 

1.06133 

.1 

5.2 

1.03640 

.1 

6.8 

1.04894 

.1 

8.5 

1.06176 

.2 

5  2 

1.03682 

.2 

6.9 

1.04937 

.2 

8.55 

1.06219 

.3 

5.3 

1.03723 

.3 

7.0 

1.04979 

.3 

8.6 

1.06262 

.4 

5.3 

1.03765 

.4 

7.0 

1.0.5021 

.4 

8.7 

1.0G306 

.5 

5.4 

1.03806 

.5 

7.1 

1.05064 

.5 

8.8 

1  06349 

.6 

5.4 

1.03848 

.6 

7.1 

1.0.5106 

.6 

8.8 

1.06392 

.7 

5.5 

1.03889 

r> 

7.2 

1 .05149 

.7 

8.9 

1.06436 

.8 

5.55 

1.03931 

."8 

7.2 

1.05191 

.8 

8.9 

1.06479 

.9 

5.6 

1.03972 

.9 

7.3 

1.05233 

.9 

9.0 

1.06522 

10.0 

5.7 

1.04014 

18.0 

7.4 

1.05276 

16.0 

9.0 

1.06566 

.1 

5.7 

1.040.55 

.1 

7.4 

1.05318 

.1 

9.1 

1.06609 

.2 

5.8 

1.04097 

.2 

7.5 

1.05361 

.2 

9.2 

1.06653 

.3 

5.8 

1.04133 

.3 

7.5 

1.05104 

.3 

9  2 

1.06696 

.4 

5.9 

1.0J180 

.4 

7.6 

1.05446 

.4 

9.3 

1.06740 

.5 

5  9 

1.04222 

.5 

7.6 

1.05489 

.5 

9.3 

1.06783 

.6 

6.0 

1.04204 

.6 

7.7 

1 .05532 

.6 

9.4 

1.06827 

.7 

6.1 

1.04306 

.7 

7.75 

1.05574 

.7 

9.4 

1.06871 

.8 

6.1 

1.04348 

.8 

7.8 

1.05617 

.8 

9.5 

1.06914 

.9 

6.2 

1.04390 

.9 

7.9 

1.05660 

.9 

9.5 

1.06958 

11.0 

6.2 

1  044.31 

14.0 

7.9 

1.05703 

17.0 

9.6 

1.07002 

.1 

6.3 

1.04473 

.1 

8.0 

1.05746 

.1 

9.7 

1.07046 

.2 

6.3 

1  04515 

.2 

8.0 

1  05789 

.2 

9.7 

1.07090 

.3 

6.4 

1.04557 

.3 

8.1 

1.05831 

.3 

9.8 

1.07133 

.4 

6.5 

1.04599 

.4 

8.1 

1 .05874 

.4 

9.8 

1.07177 

.5 

6.5 

1.04641 

.5 

8.2 

1.05917 

.5 

9.9 

1 .07221 

.6 

6.6 

1.04683 

.6 

8.3 

1.05960 

.6 

9.9 

1.07265 

.7 

6.6 

1.04726 

.7 

8.3 

1.06003 

7 

10.0 

1.07.309 

.8 

6.7 

1.04768 

.8 

84 

1.06047 

'.% 

10.0 

1.07353 

.9 

6.7 

1.04810 

.9 

8.4 

1.06090 

.9 

10.1 

1.07397 

CORRECTION 

FOR 

TEMPERATURE, 

BRIX  SPINDLE.-(Gerlach.) 

Approximate  Degree 

Temp. 
°C. 

Temp. 
»F. 

Brix 

AND  Correction. 

15 

20 

25 

30 

13 

55.4 

.21 

.22 

.24 

.26 

-g'  Note.— For  temperatures 
83  above  17J4°  C.  add  the  cor- 

14 

57.2 

.17 

.18 

.19 

.21 

15 

59. 

.14 

.14 

.15 

.16 

is  rection  to  the  reading  at  the 

16 

60.8 

.09 

.10 

.10 

.11 

•2  observed  temperature;    be- 

17 

62.6 

.03 

.03 

.04 

.04 

m  low  171^°  C.  subtract. 

18 

64.4 

03 

.03 

.03 

.03 

19 

66.2 

.09 

.09 

.10 

.10 

20 
21 
22 

68. 
69  8 

.17 
24 

.17 
24 

.18 
25 

.18 
25 

^    Obtain  Baum6  corrections 

71.6 

.31 

.31 

.32 

.32 

73  from  corresponding  degree 
<  Brix. 

23 

73.4 

.37 

.38 

.39 

.39 

24 

75.2 

.43 

.44 

.46 

.46 

25 

77. 

.49 

.51 

.53 

.54 

DEGREES  BRIX  AND  BAUME  AND  SP,  GR.  OF  SUGAR.  277 


TABLE    SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF    THE    DEGREES    BRIX 
AND  BAUME,  KTC.-Continued. 


J 

I^ 

III 

^i    • 

I^ 

f 
III 

s^ 

Degre 
Bnx 
Cent 

Suga 

III 

S3  > 

u 

fill 

18.0 

10.1 

1.07441 

28.0 

13.0 

1.09686 

28.0 

15.7 

1.12013 

.1 

10.2 

1  07485 

.1 

13.0 

1.09732 

.1 

15.8 

1.12060 

.2 

10.3 

1.07530 

2 

13.1 

1.09777 

.2 

15.8 

1.12107 

.3 

10.3 

1.07574 

3 

13.1 

1.09823 

.3 

15.9 

1.12155 

.4 

10.4 

1.07618 

4 

13.2 

1.09869 

.4 

16.0 

1.12202 

.5 

10.4 

1.07662 

5 

13.2 

1.09915 

.5 

16.0 

1.12250 

.6 

10.5 

1.07706 

6 

13.3 

1.09961 

.6 

16.1 

1.12297 

.7 

10.5 

1.07751 

7 

13.3 

1.10007 

.7 

16.1 

1.12345 

.8 

10.6 

1.07795 

8 

13.4 

1.10053 

.8 

16.2 

1.1239S 

.9 

10.6 

1.07839 

9 

13.5 

1.10099 

.9 

16.2 

1.12440 

19.0 

10.7 

1.07884 

24. 

0 

13.5 

1.10145 

29.0 

16  3 

1.12488 

.1 

10.8 

1.07928 

1 

13.6 

1.10191 

.1 

16.3 

1.12536 

.2 

10.8 

1.07973 

2 

13.6 

1.10237 

.2 

16.4 

1.12583 

.3 

10.9 

1.08017 

3 

13.7 

1.10283 

.3 

16.5 

1.12631 

.4 

10.9 

1.08062 

4 

13.7 

1.10329 

.4 

16.5 

1.12679 

.5 

11.0 

1.08106 

5 

13.8 

1.10375 

.5 

16.6 

1.12727 

.6 

11.1 

1.08151 

6 

13.8 

1.10421 

.6 

16.6 

1.12775 

.7 

11.1 

1.08196 

7 

13.9 

1.10468 

.7 

16.7 

1.12823 

.8 

11.2 

1.08240 

8 

14.0 

1.10514 

.8 

16.7 

1.12871 

.9 

11.2 

1.08285 

9 

14.0 

1.10560 

.9 

16.8 

1.12919 

20.0 

11.3 

1.08329 

25 

0 

14.1 

1.10607 

30.0 

16.8 

1.12967 

.1 

11.3 

1.08374 

1 

14.1 

1.10653 

.1 

16.9 

1.13015 

.2 

11.4 

1.08419 

2 

14.2 

1.10700 

.2 

16.95 

1.13063 

.3 

11.5 

1.08464 

3 

14.2 

1.10746 

.3 

17.0 

1.13111 

.4 

11-5 

1.08509 

4 

14.3 

1.10793 

.4 

17.1 

1.13159 

.5 

11.6 

1.08553 

5 

14.3 

1.10839 

.5 

17.1 

1.13207 

.6 

11.6 

1.08599 

6 

14.4 

1.10886 

.6 

17.2 

1.13255 

.7 

11.7 

1.08643 

7 

14.5 

1.10932 

.7 

17.2 

1.13304 

.8 

11.7 

1.08688 

8 

14.5 

1.10979 

.8 

17.3 

1.13352 

.9 

11.8 

1.08733 

9 

14.6 

1.11026 

.9 

17.3 

1.13100 

21.0 

11.8 

1.08778 

26 

0 

14.6 

1.11072 

81.0 

17.4 

1.13449 

.1 

11.9 

1.08824 

1 

14.7 

1.11119 

.1 

17.4 

1.13497 

.2 

11.95 

1.08869 

2 

14.7 

1.11166 

.2 

17.5 

1.13545 

.3 

12.0 

1.08914 

3 

14.8 

1.11213 

.3 

17.6 

1.13594 

.4 

12.0 

1.08959 

4 

14.85 

1.11259 

.4 

17.6 

1.13642 

.5 

12.1 

1 .09004 

5 

14.9 

1.11306 

.5 

17.7 

1.13691 

.6 

12.1 

1.09049 

6 

15.0 

1.11353 

.6 

17.7 

1.13740 

.7 

12.2 

1.09095 

7 

15.0 

1.11400 

.7 

17.8 

1.13788 

.8 

12.3 

1.09140 

8 

15.1 

1.11447 

.8 

17.8 

1.13837 

.9 

12.3 

1.09185 

9 

15.1 

1.11494 

.9 

17.9 

1.13885 

22.0 

12.4 

1.09231 

27.0 

15.2 

1.11541 

«2.0 

17.95 

1.13934 

.1 

12.5 

1.09276 

.1 

15.2 

1.11588 

18.0 

1.13983 

.2 

12.5 

1.09321 

.2 

15.3 

1.11635 

'.2 

18.0 

1.14032 

.3 

12.6 

1.09367 

.3 

15  3 

1.11682 

.3 

18.1 

1.14081 

.4 

12.6 

1.09412 

.4 

15.4 

1.11729 

.4 

18.2 

1.14129 

.5 

12.7 

1.09458 

.5 

15.5 

1.11776 

.5 

18.2 

1.14178 

.6 

12.7 

1.09503 

.6 

15.5 

1.11824 

.6 

18.3 

1.14227 

.7 

12.8 

1.09549 

.7 

15.6 

1.11871 

.7 

18.3 

1.14276 

.8 

12.85 

1.09595 

.8 

15.6 

1.11918 

.8 

18.4 

1.14335 

.9 

12.9 

1.09640 

.9 

15.7 

1.11965 

.9 

18.4 

1.14374 

278       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE    SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF   THE    DEGREES    BRIZ 
AND  BAUMfi,  ETC.— Continued. 


Degree 
Brix  (Per 
Cent 
Sugar). 

III 

II 

Degree 
Brix  (Per 
Cent 
Sugar). 

1 

in 
III 

Degree 
Brix  (Per 

Cent 
Sugar). 

J 

83.0 

18.5 

1.14423 

38.0 

21.2 

1.16920 

43.0 

23.95 

1.19505 

.1 

18.55 

1.14472 

.1 

21.3 

1.16971 

.1 

24.0 

1.19558 

.2 

18.6 

1.14521 

.2 

21.35 

1.17022 

.2 

24.1 

1.19611 

.3 

18.7 

1.14570 

.3 

21.4 

1.17072 

.3 

24.1 

1.19653 

.4 

18.7 

1.14620 

.4 

21.5 

1.17123 

.4 

24.2 

1.19716 

.5 

18.8 

1.14669 

.5 

21.5 

1.17174 

.5 

24.2 

1.19769 

.6 

18.8 

1.14718 

.6 

21.6 

1.17225 

.6 

24.3 

1.19822 

.7 

18.9 

1.14767 

.7 

21.6 

1.17276 

.7 

24.3 

1.19875 

.8 

18.9 

1.14817 

.8 

21.7 

1.17327 

.8 

24.4 

1.19927 

.9 

19.0 

1.14866 

.9 

21.7 

1.1V3V9 

.9 

24.4 

1.19980 

84.0 

19.05 

1.14915 

39.0 

21.8 

1.17430 

44.0 

24.5 

1.20033 

.1 

19.1 

1.14965 

.1 

21.8 

1.17481 

.1 

24.55 

1.20086 

.2 

19.2 

1.15014 

.2 

21.9 

1.17532 

.2 

24.6 

1.20139 

.3 

19.2 

1.15064 

.3 

21.9 

1.17583 

.3 

24.65 

1.20192 

.4 

19.3 

1.15113 

.4 

22.0 

1.17635 

.4 

24.7 

1.20245 

.5 

19.3 

1.15163 

.5 

22.05 

1.17686 

.5 

24.8 

1.20299 

.6 

19.4 

1.15213 

.6 

22.1 

1.17737 

.6 

24.8 

1.20352 

.7 

19.4 

1.15262 

.7 

22.2 

1.17789 

.7 

24.9 

1.20405 

.8 

19.5 

1.15312 

.8 

22.2 

1.17840 

.8 

24.9 

1.20458 

.9 

19.5 

1.15362 

.9 

22.3 

1.17892 

.9 

25.0 

1.20512 

85.0 

19.6 

1.15411 

40.0 

22.3 

1.17943 

45.0 

25.0 

1.20565 

.1 

19.65 

1.15461 

.1 

22.4 

1.17995 

.1 

25.1 

1.20618 

.2 

19.7 

1.15511 

.2 

22.4 

1.18046 

.2 

25.1 

1.20672 

.3 

19  8 

1.15561 

.3 

22.5 

1.18098 

.3 

25.2 

1.20725 

.4 

19.8 

1.15611 

.4 

22.5 

1.18150 

.4 

25.2 

1.20779 

.5 

19  9 

1.15661 

.5 

22.Q 

1.18201 

.5 

25.3 

1.208.32 

.6 

19.9 

1.15710 

.6 

22.6 

1.18253 

.6 

25.4 

1.20886 

.7 

20.0 

1.15760 

.7 

22.7 

1.18305 

.7 

25.4 

1.20939 

.8 

20.0 

1.15810 

.8 

22.8 

1.18357 

.8 

25.5 

1.20993 

.9 

20.1 

1.15861 

.9 

22.8 

1.18408 

.9 

25.5 

1.21046 

86.0 

20.1 

1.15911 

41.0 

22  9 

1.18460 

46.0 

25  6 

1.21100 

.1 

30.2 

1.15961 

.1 

^2.9 

1.18512 

.1 

25.6 

1.21154 

.2 

20.25 

1.16011 

.2 

23.0 

1.18564 

.2 

25.7 

1.21208 

.3 

20.3 

1.16061 

.3 

23.0 

1.18616 

.3 

25.7 

1.21261 

.4 

20.4 

1.16111 

.4 

23.1 

1.18668 

.4 

25.8 

1  21315 

.5 

20.4 

1.16162 

.5 

23.1 

1.18720 

.5 

25.8 

1.21369 

.6 

20.5 

1.16212 

.6 

23.2 

1.18772 

.6 

25.9 

1.21423 

.7 

20.5 

1.16262 

.7 

23.25 

1.18824 

.7 

25.95 

1.21477 

.8 

20.6 

1.16313 

.8 

23.3 

1.18877 

.8 

26.0 

1.21531 

.9 

20.6 

1.16363 

.9 

23.4 

1.18929 

.9 

26.1 

1.21585 

87.0 

20.7 

1.16413 

42.0 

23.4 

1.18981 

47.0 

26.1 

1.21639 

.1 

20.7 

1.16464 

.1 

23.5 

1.19033 

.1 

26.2 

1.21693 

.2 

20.8 

1.16514 

.2 

23.5 

1.19086 

.2 

26.2 

1.21747 

.3 

20.9 

1.16,565 

.3 

23.6 

1.19138 

.3 

26.3 

1 .21802 

.4 

20.9 

1.16616 

.4 

23.6 

1.19190 

.4 

26.3 

1.218.5G 

.5 

21.0 

1.16666 

.5 

23.7 

1.19243 

.5 

26.4 

1.21910 

.6 

21.0 

1.16717 

.6 

23.7 

1.19295 

.6 

26.4 

1.21964 

.7 

21.1 

1.16768 

.7 

2:^.8 

1.19348 

.7 

26.5 

1.22019 

.8 

21.1 

1.16818 

.8 

23.8 

1.19400 

.8 

26.5 

1.22073 

.9 

21.2 

1.16869 

.9 

1 

23.9 

1.19453 

.9 

26.6 

1.22127 

DEGREES  BRIX  AND  BAUME  AND  SP.  GR.  OF  SUGAR.  279 

TABLE    SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF    THE    DEGREES    BRIX 
AND  BAUMfi,  ETC.— Continued. 


CLi       —C        •<)  -w 


26.6 

26.7 

26.7r< 

26.8 

86.9 

26.9 

27.0 

27.0 

27.1 

27.1 

27. "J 
27.2 
27.3 
27.3 
27.4 
27  i 
27.5 
27.6 
27.6 
27.7 

27.7 
27.8 
27.8 
27.9 
27.9 
28.0 
28.0 
28.1 
28.1 
28.2 

28.2 


28.4 
28.5 
28.5 
28.6 
28.6 
28.7 
28.7 

28.8 

28.8 

28.9 

28.9 

29.0 

29.0 

29.1 

29.15 

29.2 

29.2 


1.22182 


1.22291 
1.22345 
1.22400 
1.22455 
1.22509 
1.22564 
1.22619 
1.22673 

1.22728 

1 

1 

1 

1.22948 

1  23003 

1.23058 

1.23113 

1.23168 

1 


1.23278 
1.23334 


1.23444 
1.23499 
1.23555 
1.23610 
1.23666 
1.23721 
1.23777 


1 

1.23888 

1 

1 

1.24055 

1.24111 

1.24166 

1.24222 

1.24278 

1.24334 


1 

1.24446 
1.24502 
1.24558 
1.24614 
1.24670 
1.24726 
1.24782 
1.24839 
1.24895 


J  ^ 

VD.2 

o^ 

J  - 

.-t 

m 

iv 

Im 

-^mow 

^cq8 

^ 

^CQO<g 

fi«l 

58.0 

29.3 

1.24951 

58.0 

31.9 

.1 

29.4 

1.25008 

.1 

32.0 

.2 

29.4 

1.25064 

.2 

32.0 

.3 

29.5 

1.25120 

.3 

32.1 

.4 

29.5 

1.25177 

.4 

32.15 

.5 

29.6 

1.25233 

.5 

32.2 

.6 

29.6 

1.25290 

.6 

32.3 

.7 

29.7 

1.25347 

.7 

32.3 

.8 

29.7 

1.25403 

.8 

32.4 

.9 

29.8 

1.25460 

.9 

32.4 

54.0 

29.8 

1.25517 

59.0 

32.5 

.1 

29.9 

1.25573 

.1 

32.5 

.2 

29  9 

1.25630 

.2 

32.6 

.3 

30.0 

1.25687 

.3 

32.6 

.4 

30  05 

1.25747 

.4 

32.7 

.5. 

80.1 

1.25801 

.5 

32.7 

.6 

30.2 

1.25857 

.6 

32.8 

.7 

30.2 

1.25914 

.7 

32.8 

.8 

30.3 

1.25971 

.8 

32.9 

.9 

30.3 

1.26028 

.9 

32.9 

55.0 

30.4 

1.26086 

60.0 

33.0 

.1 

304 

1.26143 

.1 

33.0 

.2 

30.5 

1.26200 

.2 

33.1 

.3 

30.5 

1.26257 

.3 

33.1 

.4 

30.6 

1.26314 

.4 

33.2 

.5 

30.6 

1.26372 

.5 

33.2 

.6 

30.7 

1.26429 

.6 

33.3 

.7 

30.7 

1.26486 

.7 

33.35 

.8 

30.8 

1.26544 

.8 

33.4 

.9 

30.8 

1.26601 

.9 

33.45 

56.0 

30.9 

1.26658 

61.0 

33.5 

.1 

30.9 

1.26716 

.1 

33  6 

.2 

31.0 

1.26773 

.2 

33.6 

.3 

31.05 

1.26831 

.3 

33.7 

.4 

31.1 

1.26889 

.4 

33.7 

.5 

31.2 

1.26946 

.5 

33.8 

.6 

31.2 

1.27004 

.6 

33.8 

.7 

31.3 

1.27062 

.7 

33.9 

.8 

31.3 

1.27120 

.8 

33.9 

.9 

31.4 

1.27177 

.9 

34.0 

57.0 

31.4 

1.27235 

62.0 

34.0 

.1 

31.5 

1.27293 

.1 

34.1 

.2 

31.5 

1.27351 

.2 

34.1 

.3 

31.6 

1.27409 

.3 

34.2 

.4 

31.6 

1.27464 

.4 

34.2 

.5 

31.7 

1.27525 

.5 

34.3 

.6 

31.7 

1.27583 

.6 

34.3 

.7 

31.8 

1.27641 

.7 

34.4 

.8 

31.8 

1.27699 

.8 

34.4 

.9 

31.9 

1.27758 

.9 

34.5 

280       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR- HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE    SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF    THE    DEGREES    BRIX 
AND  BAUME,  ^TC— Continued. 


Degree 
Brix  (Per 

Cent 
Sugar). 

J 
|l| 

ific 
vity. 

Degree 
Brix  (Per 
Cent 
Sugar). 

VD.2 

4)  w  *3  CS 

it 

1^^ 

p 

h,.^  G  So 

oC  —  OJ  3 

II 

63.U 

34.5 

1.30777 

68.0 

37.1 

1.33836 

73.0 

39.6 

1.36995 

.1 

34.6 

1.30837 

.1 

37.1 

1.33899 

.1 

39.7 

1.37059 

.2 

34.6 

1.30897 

.2 

37.2 

1.33961 

.2 

39.7 

1.37124 

.3 

34.7 

1.30958 

.3 

37.3 

1.34023 

.3 

39.8 

1.37188 

.4 

34.7 

1.31018 

.4 

37.3 

1.34085 

.4 

39.8 

1.37252 

.5 

34.8 

1.3] 078 

.5 

37.4 

1.34148 

.5 

39.9 

1.37317 

.6 

34.85 

1.31139 

.6 

37.4 

1.34210 

.6 

39.9 

1.37381 

.7 

34.9 

1.31199 

.7 

37.5 

1.34273 

.7 

40.0 

1.37446 

.8 

34.95 

1 .31260 

.8 

37.5 

1.34335 

.8 

40.0 

1.37510 

.9 

35.0 

1.313>0 

.9 

37.6 

1.34398 

.9 

40.1 

1.37575 

•4.0 

35.1 

1.31381  1 

69.0 

37.6 

1.34460 

74.0 

40.1 

1.37639 

.1 

35.1 

1.31442  i 

.1 

37.7 

1.34523 

.1 

40.2 

1.37704 

.2 

35.2 

1.31502 

.2 

37.7 

1.34585 

o 

40.2 

1.37768 

.3 

35.2 

1.31563 

.3 

37.8 

1.34648 

'.S 

40.3 

l.378;« 

.4 

35.3 

1.31624 

.4 

37.8 

1.34711 

A 

40.3 

1.37898 

.5 

35.3 

1.31684 

.5 

37.9 

1  34774 

.5 

40.4 

1.37962 

.6 

35.4 

1.31745 

.6 

37.9 

1.34836 

.6 

40.4 

1.38027 

.7 

35.4 

1.31806 

.7 

38.0 

1.34899 

.7 

40.5 

1.38092 

.8 

35.5 

1.31867 

.8 

38.0 

1.34962 

.8 

40.5 

1.38157 

.9 

35.5 

1.31928 

.9 

38.1 

1.35025 

.9 

40.6 

1.38222 

65.0 

35.6 

1.31989 

70.0 

38.1 

1.35088 

75.0 

40.6 

1.38287 

.1 

35.6 

1.32050 

38.2 

1.35151 

.1 

40  7 

1.38352 

.2 

35.7 

i.;«iii 

.2 

38.2 

1.35214 

.2 

40.7 

1.38417 

.3 

35.7 

1.3.'172 

.3 

38.3 

1.35277 

.3 

40  8 

1.38482 

.4 

35.8 

1.32233 

.4 

38.3 

1.35340 

.4 

40.8 

1.38547 

.5 

85.8 

1.32294 

.5 

38.4 

1.35403 

.5 

40.9 

1.88612 

.6 

35.9 

1.32355 

.6 

38.4 

1.35466 

.6 

40.9 

1.38677 

.7 

35  9 

1.32417 

.7 

38.5 

1.35530 

.7 

41.0 

1.38743 

.8 

36.0 

1.32478 

.8 

38.5 

1.35593 

.8 

41.0 

1.38808 

.9 

36.0 

1.32539 

.9 

38.6 

1.35656 

.9 

41.1 

1.38873 

66.0 

36.1 

1.32601 

71.0 

38.6 

1.35720 

76.0 

41.1 

1.38939 

.1 

36.1  1  1.32662  ! 

.1 

38.7 

1.35783 

.1 

41.2 

1.39004 

.2 

36.2  ;  1.32724  | 

.2 

38.7 

1.35847 

.2 

41.2 

1.39070 

.8 

36.2   1.32785  1 

.3 

38.8 

1.35910 

.3 

41.3 

1.39135 

.4 

36.3 

1.32847 

.4 

38.8 

1.35974 

.4 

41.3 

1.39201 

.5 

36.3 

1.3-2908 

.5 

38.9 

1.36037 

.5 

41.4 

1.39266 

.6 

36.4 

1.32970  i 

.6 

38.9 

1.36101 

.6 

41.4 

1.39332 

.7 

36.4 

1.33031 

.7 

39.0 

1.36164 

.7 

41.5 

1.39397 

,8 

36.5 

1  33093  1 

.8 

39.0 

1.36228 

.8 

41.5 

1.3946S 

.9 

36.5 

1.33155 

.9 

39.1 

1.36292 

.9 

41.6 

1.3D529 

67.0 

36.6 

1.33217 

72.0 

39.1 

1.36355 

77.0 

41.6 

1.39595 

36.6  1.33278 

.1 

39  2 

1.36419 

.1 

41.7 

1.39600 

.2 

36.7  1.3?.340 

.2 

39.2 

1.36483 

.2 

41.7 

1.39726 

.3 

36  75  1.33402 

.3 

39.3 

1.36547 

.3 

41.8 

1.39792 

.4 

36  8  1  33464 

.4 

39.3 

1.36611 

.4 

41.8 

1.39858 

.5 

36.85  1.33526 

.5 

30.4 

1.36675 

.5 

41.9 

1.39924 

.6 

36.9  :  1.33588 

.6 

39.4 

1.86739 

.6 

41.9 

1.39990 

.7 

36  95'  1.33650 

.7 

39.5 

1.36803 

.7 

42.0 

1.40056 

.8 

37.0 

1.33712 

.8 

39.5 

1.36867 

.8 

42.0 

1.40122 

.9 

37.0 

1.33VY4 

.9 

39.6 

1.36931 

.9 

42.1 

1.40188 

DEGREES  BRIX  AND  BAUME  AND  SP.  GR.  OF  SUGAR.  281 


TABLE   SHOWING    A    COMPARISON    OF   THE    DEGREES    BRIX 
AND  BAUME,  ETC.— Continued. 


hf 

9- 

^ 

h 

•0 

Degree 
Brix  (Pe 
Cent 
Sugar). 

ill 

m 

1 

III 

vb5 

m 

-1 

11 

78.0 

42.1 

1.40254 

83.0 

44.6 

1.43614 

88.0 

47.0 

1.47074 

.1 

422 

1.40321 

.1 

44.6 

1.43682 

.1 

47.0 

1.47145 

.2 

42.2 

1.40387 

.2 

44.7 

1.43750 

.2 

47.1 

1.47215 

.3 

42.3 

1.40453 

.3 

44.7 

1.43819 

.3 

47.1 

1.47285 

.4 

42.3 

1.40520 

.4 

44.8 

1.43887 

.4 

47.2 

1.47356 

.5 

42.4 

1.40586 

.5 

44  8 

1.43955 

.5 

47.2 

1.47426 

.6 

42.4 

1.40652 

.6 

44.9 

1.44024 

.6 

47.3 

1.47496 

.7 

42.5 

1.40719 

.7 

44.9 

1.44092 

.7 

47.3 

1.47567 

.8 

42.5 

1.40785 

.8 

45.0 

1.44161 

.8 

47.4 

1.47637 

.9 

42. G 

1.40852 

.9 

45.0 

1.44229 

.9 

47.4 

1.47708 

79.0 

42.6 

1.40918 

84.0 

45.1 

1.44298 

89.0 

47.45 

1.47778 

.1 

42.7 

1.40985 

.1 

45.1 

1.44367 

.1 

47.5 

1.47849 

.2 

42.7 

1.41052 

.2 

45.15 

1.44435 

.2 

47.55 

1.47920 

.3 

42.8 

1.41118 

.3 

45.2 

1.44504 

.3 

47.6 

1.47991 

.4 

42.8 

1.41185 

.4 

45.25 

1.44573 

.4 

47.6 

1.48061 

.5 

42.9 

1.41252 

.5 

45.3 

1.44641 

.5 

47.7 

1.48132 

.6 

42.9 

1.41318 

.6 

45  35 

1.44710 

.6 

47.7 

1.48203 

.7 

43.0 

1.41385 

.7 

45.4 

1.44779 

.7 

47.8 

1.48274 

.8 

43.0 

1.41452 

.8 

45.4 

1.44848 

.8 

47.8 

1.48345 

.9 

43.1 

1.41519 

.9 

45.5 

1.44917 

.9 

47.9 

1.48416 

80.0 

43.1 

1.41586 

85.0 

45.5 

1.44986 

90.0 

47.9 

1.48486 

.1 

43.2 

1.41653 

45.6 

1.45055 

.1 

48.0 

1.48558 

.2 

43.2 

1.41720 

!2 

45.6 

1.45124 

.2 

48.0 

1.48629 

.3 

43.2 

1.41787 

.3 

45.7 

1.45193 

.8 

4'"  1 

1.48700 

.4 

43.3 

1  41854 

.4 

45.'? 

!.455a<5 

.4 

48!  i 

1.48771 

.5 

43.3 

1.41921 

.0 

45.8 

1.45331 

.5 

48.2 

1.48842 

.6 

40   ■ 

1.41989 

.6 

45.8 

1.45401 

.6 

48.2 

1.48913 

.7 

is!  45 

1.42056 

.7 

45.9 

1.45470 

.7 

48.3 

1.48985 

.8 

43.5 

1.42123 

.8 

45.9 

1.45539 

.8 

48.3 

1  49056 

.9 

43.55 

1.42190 

.9 

46.0 

1.45609 

.9 

48.35 

1.49127 

81.0 

43.6 

1.42258 

86.0 

46.0 

1.45678 

91.0 

48.4 

1.49199 

.1 

43.65 

1.42325 

.1 

46.1 

1.45748 

.1 

48.45 

1.49270 

.2 

43.7 

1.42393 

.2 

46.1 

1.45817 

.2 

48.5 

1.49342 

.3 

43.7 

1.42460 

.3 

46.2 

1.45887 

.3 

48  5 

1..9413 

.4 

43.8 

1.42528 

.4 

46.2 

1.45956 

.4 

48.6 

1.49485 

.5 

43.8 

1.42595 

.5 

46.3 

1.46026 

.5 

48.6 

1.49556 

.6 

43.9 

1.42663 

.6 

46.3 

1.46095 

.6 

48.7 

1.49628 

.7 

43.9 

1.42731  i 

.7 

46.35 

1.46165 

.7 

48.7 

1.49700 

.8 

44.0 

1.42798 

.8 

46.4 

1.46235 

.8 

48.8 

1.497ri 

.9 

44.0 

1.42866 

.9 

46.45 

1.46304 

.9 

48.8 

1.49843 

82.0 

44.1 

1.42934 

87.0 

46  5 

1  46374 

92.0 

48.9 

1.49915 

.1 

44.1 

1.430O2 

.1 

46.55 

1.46444 

.1 

48.9 

1.49987 

.2 

44.2 

1.43070 

.2 

46.6 

1.46514 

.2 

49.0 

1.50058 

.3 

44.2 

1.43137 

.3 

46.65 

1.46584 

.3 

49.0 

1.50130 

.4 

44.3 

1.43205 

.4 

46.7 

1.46654 

.4 

49  05 

1.50202 

.5 

44.3 

1.43273 

.5 

46.7 

1.46724 

.5 

49.1 

1.50274 

.6 

44.4 

1.43341 

.6 

46.8 

1.46794 

.6 

49.15 

1.50346 

.7 

44.4 

1.43409 

.7 

46.8 

1.46861 

.7 

49.2 

1.50419 

.8 

44.5 

1.43478 

.8 

46.9 

1.46934 

.8 

49.2 

1.5^191 

.9 

44.5 

1.43546 

.9 

46.9 

1.47004 

.9 

49.3 

1.50563 

282       HANDBOOK   I*OR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


TABLE    SHOWING 

A    COMPARISON    OF    THE    DEGREES    BRIX 

AND  BAUME,  ETC.-CowfmMed. 

^ 

x> 

&1 

9~ 

<t>H  ii: 

vB  +J 

i^ 

«£  <^ 

i-. 

^moM 

|l| 

ll 

II       , 

93.0 

49.3 

1.50635 

04.0 

49.8 

J. 51359 

.1 

49.4 

1.50707 

.1 

49.85 

1.51431 

.2 

49.4 

1.50779 

.2 

49.9 

1.51504 

.3 

49.5 

1.50852 

.3 

49.9 

1.51577 

.4 

49.5 

1.50924 

.4 

50.0 

1.51649 

.£» 

49.6 

1.50996 

.5 

50.0 

1.51722 

.6 

49.6 

1.51069 

.6 

50.1 

1.51795 

.7 

49.7 

1.51141 

.7 

50.1 

1.51868 

.8 

49.7 

1.51214 

.8 

50.2 

1.51941 

.9 

49.8 

1.51286 

.9 

50.2 

1.52014 

95.0 

50.3 

1.52087 

357.  TABLE  FOR  THE  CORRECTION  OF  READINGS  ON  THE 
BRIX  SCALE  FOR  VARIATIONS  IN  TEMPERATURE  FROM  THE 
STANDARD,  17i^°  C.  (63)^°  F.).— (Gkrlach.^ 


Temp. 

Temp. 

op 

AppnoxiMATE  Degree  Brix  and  Correction. 

»C 

0 

5 

10 

15|20 

25 

30,  3o 

40 

50 

60 

70 

75 

0 

32 

.27 

.30 

.41 

.52 

.62 

.72 

.82*   .92 

.98 

1.11 

1.22 

1.25 

1.29 

5 

41 

.23 

.30 

.37 

.44 

.52 

.59 

.65|   .72 

.75 

.80 

.88 

.91 

.94 

10 

50 

.20 

.26 

.29 

.33 

.36 

.39 

.42    .45 

.48 

.50 

.54 

.58 

.61 

11 

51.8 

.18 

.23 

,26 

.28 

.31 

.34 

.36    .39 

.41 

.43 

.47 

.50 

.53 

12 

53.6 

.16 

.20 

.22 

.24 

.26 

.29 

.31    .3S 

.34 

.36 

.40 

.42 

.46 

13 

55.4 

.14 

.18 

.19 

.21 

.22 

.24 

.26    .27 

.28 

.29 

.33 

.m 

.39 

14 

57.2 

.12 

.15 

.16 

.17]   .18 

.19 

.21     .22 

.22 

.2J^ 

.26 

.28 

.32 

15 

59 

.09 

.11 

.12 

.14    .14 

.15 

.16    .17 

.16 

.17 

.19 

.21 

.25 

16 

60.8 

.06 

07 

.08 

.09    .10 

.10 

.11     .12 

.12 

.12 

.14 

.16 

.18 

17 

62.6 

.02 

,02 

.03 

.03    .03 

.04 

.04    .04 

1 

.04 

.04 

.05 

.05 

.06 

Add  the  correction  to  readings  above  17i^°  C.  (63}^  F.)  and  subtract 
the  correction  from  those  below  this  temperature. 


64.4 

66.2 

68 

69.8 

71.6 

7'3.4 

75.2 

77 

78.8 

80.6 

82.4 

84.2 

86 

95 

104 

122 

140 

158 

176 


.02 


.70 
1.10 
1.50 


.68 


.84 
.92 
1. 

1.79 
2 

3.88 
5  1 
6.5416.46 


1 
1 
o 

3 
5 
6.38 


30 


1.83 
2.79 
3.82 
90 
6.06 


.03 


.43 

.51 

.58 

.65 

.72 

.80 

.88 

1.27 

1.69 

2.56 

43 

4.47 

5.50 


.06 

.11 

.18 

.25 

.33 

.40 

.48 

.55 

.62 

.70 

.78 

.86 

1.25 

1.65 

2.51 

3.41 

4.35 

5.33 


WEIGHT  OF  SUGAB  SOLUTIONS   AT   l?^'^  C.      283 


»58.  TABLE  SHOWING   THE   WEIGHT   PER  CUBIC  FOOT,  AND 

U.  S.  GALLON  (231  Cu.  In.)  OF  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS  AT  17i^°  0. 

(Calculatkd  prom  Stammer's  Table  op  Specipic  Gravities.) 


Degree  Brix. 

Degree 

Baume 
(corrected). 

11 

oa-9j 

1 

m 

■sod 

1 

1 

m 
1^1 

.Co 

IP 
^^1 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Ebs. 

Lbs. 

1 

0.6 

62.59 

8.36 

28 

15.7 

69.84 

9.33 

55 

30.4 

78.62 

10.51 

1.5 

0.85 

62.72 

8.38 

28.5 

16.0 

69.99 

9.35 

55.5 

30.6 

78.79 

10.53 

2 

1.1 

63.84 

8.39 

29 

16.3 

70.14 

938 

56 

30.9 

78.97 

10.55 

2  5 

1.4 

62.96 

8.40 

29.5 

16.6 

70  29 

9  39 

56.5 

31.2 

79.15 

10.57 

3 

1.7 

63.08 

8.42 

30 

16.8 

70.44 

9.41 

57 

31.4 

79.33 

10.60 

3.5 

2.0 

63.20 

8.44 

30.5 

17.1 

70.59 

9.43 

'57.5 

31.7 

79.51 

10.62 

4 

2.3 

63.32 

8.46 

31 

17.4 

70.74 

9.45 

;58 

31.9 

79.70 

10.65 

4.5 

2.55 

63.44 

8.48 

31.5 

17.7 

70.89 

9.47 

,58.5 

32.2 

79.87 

10.67 

5 

2.8 

63.57 

8.50 

32 

17.95 

71.04 

9.49 

'59 

32.5 

80.05 

10.70 

5.5 

3.1 

63.70 

8.52 

32.5 

18.2 

71.19 

9.51 

(59.5 

32.7 

80.24 

10.72 

6 

34 

63.83 

8.53 

33 

18.5 

71.35 

9.53 

'60 

33.0 

80.43 

10.75 

6.5 

3.7 

63.95 

8.55 

83.5 

18.8 

71.50 

9.55 

60.5 

33.2 

80.62 

10.77 

7 

4.0 

.64.08 

8.57 

34 

19.05 

71.65 

9.58 

61 

33.5 

80.80 

10.80 

7.5 

4.25 

64.21 

8.59 

345 

19.3 

71.80 

9.60 

!61.5 

33.8 

80  98 

10.82 

8 

4.5 

64.34 

8.60 

35 

19.6 

71.96 

9.62 

:62 

34.0 

81.17 

10.85 

8.5 

4.8 

64.47 

8.61 

35.5 

19.9 

72.11 

964 

62.5 

34.3 

81.35 

10.87 

9 

5.1 

64.60 

8.63 

36 

20.1 

72.27 

9.66 

63 

34.5 

81  54 

10.90 

9.5 

5.4 

64.72 

8.65 

36.5 

20.4 

72.43 

9  68 

63.5 

34.8 

81  73 

10.92 

10 

5.7 

64.84 

8  67 

37 

20.7 

72.59 

9.70 

64 

35.1 

81.92 

10.95 

10.5 

5.9 

64.97 

8.69 

37.5 

21.0 

72.74 

9.72 

164.5 

35.3 

82.11 

10.97 

11 

6.2 

65.11 

8.71 

38 

21.2 

72.90 

9.74 

65 

35.6 

82.30 

11.00 

11.5 

6  5 

65.24 

8.72 

38.5 

21.6 

73.06 

9.76 

'65.5 

35.8 

82.49 

11.02 

12 

6.8 

65.38 

8.74 

39 

21.8 

73.22 

9.78 

66 

36.1 

82.68 

11.05 

12.5 

7.1 

65.51 

8.76 

39.5 

22.05 

73.38 

9.80 

66.5 

36.3 

82.87 

11.07 

13 

7.4 

65.64 

8.78 

40 

22.3 

73.54 

9.83 

67 

36.6 

83.06 

11.10 

13.5 

7.6 

65.77 

8.79 

40.5 

22.6 

73.70 

9.85 

67.5 

36.85 

83.25 

11.12 

14 

7.9 

65.91 

8.81 

41 

22.9 

73.86 

9.87 

■68 

37.1 

83.45 

11.15 

14.5 

8.2 

66.04 

8.82 

41.5 

23.1 

74.02 

9.89 

168.5 

37.4 

83.64 

11.17 

15 

8.5 

66.18 

8.84 

42 

23.4 

74.18 

9.91 

69 

37.6 

83.84 

11.20 

15.5 

8.8 

66.31 

8. 86 

42.5 

23.7 

74.34 

9.93 

69.5 

37.9 

84.03 

11.23 

16 

9.0 

66.44 

8.88 

43 

23.95 

74.51 

9.96 

70 

38.1 

84.23 

11.26 

16.5 

9.3 

06.58 

8.90 

43.5 

24.2 

74.67 

9.98 

70.5 

38.4 

84.42 

11.28 

17 

9.6 

66.72 

8.92 

44 

24.5 

74.84 

10.00 

I7I 

38.6 

84.62 

11.31 

17.5 

9.9 

66.85 

8.93 

44.5 

24.8 

75.00 

10.02 

171.5 

38.9 

84.82 

11.33 

18 

10.1 

66.99 

8.95 

45 

25.0 

75.17 

10.05 

172 

39.1 

85.02 

11.36 

18.5 

10.4 

67.13 

8.97 

45.5 

25.3 

75.34 

10.07 

72.5 

39.4 

85.21 

11.39 

19 

10.7 

67.27 

8.99 

46 

25.6 

75.51 

10.09 

73 

39.6 

a5.41 

11.42 

19.5 

11.0 

67.41 

9.01 

46.5 

25.8 

75.67 

10.11 

73.5 

39.9 

85.61 

11.44 

20 

11.3 

67.55 

9.03 

47 

26.1 

75.84 

10.13 

74 

40.1 

85  81 

11.47 

20.5 

11.6 

67.69 

9.04 

47.5 

26.4 

76.01 

10.15 

[74.5 

40.4 

86.01 

11.49 

21 

11.8 

67.83 

9.06 

48 

26.6 

76.18 

10.18 

75 

40.6 

86.22 

11.52 

21.5 

12.1 

67.97 

9.08 

48.5 

26.9 

76.35 

10.20 

75.5 

40.9 

86.42 

11.55 

22 

12.4 

68.11 

9.10 

49 

27.2 

76.52 

10.23 

76 

41.1 

86.63 

11.58 

22  5 

12.7 

68.25 

9.13 

49.5 

27.4 

76.69 

10.25 

176.5 

41.4 

86.83 

11.60 

23 

13.0 

68.39 

9.16 

50 

27.7 

76.87 

10.27 

177 

41.6 

87.04 

11.63 

23.5 

13.2 

68.54 

9.17 

50.5 

28.0 

77.04 

10  29 

77.5 

41.9 

87  24 

11.66 

24 

13.5 

68.68 

9.18 

51 

28.2 

77.21 

10.32 

[78 

42.1 

87.45 

11  69 

24.5 

13.8 

68.82 

9. 20 

51.5 

28.5 

77.38 

10.34 

'78.5 

42.4 

87.65 

11.71 

25 

14.1 

68.96 

9.22 

52 

28.8 

77.56 

10.36 

179 

42.6 

87.86 

11.74 

25.5 

14.3 

69.11 

9.24 

.52  5 

29.0 

77.73 

10.38 

79.5 

42.9 

88.07 

11. 7T 

26 

14.6 

69.26 

9.26 

53 

29.3 

77.91 

10.41 

80 

43.1 

88.28 

11.80 

26.5 

14.9 

69.41 

9.27 

53.5 

29.6 

78.08 

10  43 

80.5 

43.3 

88.49 

11.82 

27 

15  2 

69.55 

9.29 

54 

29.8 

78.26 

10.46 

,81 

43.6 

88.70 

11.85 

27.5 

15.5 

69.69 

9.31 

54.5 

30.1 

78.44|  10.48 

81.5 

43.8 

88.91 

11.88 

284       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


TABLE  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  PER  CUBIC  FOOT  AND  U.  S. 
GALLON  (231  CxJ.  In.)  OF  SUGAR  SOLUTIONS.— Continued. 


M 

^ 

o 

«■    !        ^ 

^ 

x' 

^ 

>^ 

pa 

1 

•sd 

-o^S 

pq 

I 

'S*^ 

oc--" 

'  (S 

1 

■se 

^..a 

1 

^  2 

S^3 

I 

'OJU 

11 

m 

II 

|<si 

•5  5 

I^i 

1 

|ll 

1" 

1^1 

1 

l^s 

i" 

irl 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

Lbs. 

82 

44.1 

■89.13 

11.91 

86.5 

46  3 

91.04 

12.17 

91 

48.4 

93.02 

12.43 

82.5 

44.3 

89.34 

11.94 

87 

46.5 

91.26 

12.20 

91.5 

48.6 

93.24 

12  46 

83 

44.6 

89.55 

11.97 

87.5 

46.7 

91.48 

12.23 

92 

48.9 

93.47 

12.49 

83.5 

44.8 

89.76 

11.99 

88 

47.0 

91.70 

12  26 

92.5 

49.1 

93  69 

12.52 

84 

45.1 

89.97 

12.02 

88.5 

47.2 

91.92 

12.28 

93 

49.3 

93.92 

12.55 

84.5 

45  3 

90.18 

12.05 

89 

47.45 

92.14 

12.31 

93.5 

49  6 

94.14 

12.58 

85 

45.5 

90.40 

12.08 

89.5 

47.7 

92.36 

12.34 

94 

49.8 

94.37 

12  61 

85.5 

45.8 

90.61 

12.11 

90 

47.9 

92.58 

12.37 

94.5 

50.0 

94.60 

12.64 

86 

46  0 

90  83 

12.14 

90.5 

48.2 

92.80 

12.40 

95 

50.3 

94.83 

12.67 

SCHMITZ*   TABLE. 


285 


oidoosiavaoj 

i-He»eoTt<ioot>QO<» 

*;5®J®I2^S2$^S2S 

gSSSJ 

1 

d 

ddd  r-,T-lr-.r-l0iTi 

^vi  eo  vi  CO  rf -^ -^  ^  i6 

5.50 

5.77 
6.05 
6.32 

JO 

d 

§5SS§Sgg{g§S^ 

(jj  M  ec  03  ed  -^  ■*"  -"t  Tf  o 

5  51 

5.78 
6.06 
6.33 

O  O  O  T-(  ,-.  rH  M  0»  (N 

o 
d 

0.28 
0.55 
0.83 
1.10 
1.38 
1.66 
1.93 
2.21 
2.48 

5  52 

5  79 
6.07 
6.35 

00 

§55g§3;::??Sg5J^ 

SS^SfeS^gfe^ 

Sss^ 

O  O  O  r-.  ,-(  ,-1  TH  (N  0» 

^sococcsoTfTPTH-^o 

»o>fiwo 

o 

CO 

0.28 
0.55 
0.83 
1.11 
1.38 
1.66 
1.94 
2.22 
2.49 

e,' CO  eo  CO  00  ■*  T)J  TjJ  Tf  m 

5.54 

5.82 
6.09 
6.37 

iO 

d  d  d  rt'  r-l  T-I  r.;  OJ  (J* 

^  «0  CO  CO  00  TT -*  TlJ -rli  o 

^^::^ 
^««® 

o 

dddT-i,-.r-.,-;oJd 

^cocoeooo-^TfTridio 

5.56 

5.84 
6.12 
6.40 

d 

dddf-Ir-Ir-iTH'oJo* 

•xeoeocoTjI-^Tfioo 

5.57 

5  85 
6.131 
6.4ll 

o 

d 

0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.67 
1.95 
2.23 
2.51 

^eococdco-^nJ-^iOJO 

SS  :  : 

»o 

§5SS25§S^S;S 

gg^s^s^^gsg? 

:  :  :  : 

O  O  O  !-< -TH  ,1  rH  OJ  Ot 

e,o3eoeoooTj<n.'*iO»o 

o 

i§gS2^§^^S 

SS^SSJa^E:  :  : 

:  :  :  : 

O  O  O  rH  T-.  T-.  i-l  (M  «Ji 

a,eoeoeoooTi«Tj<^    •    • 

.... 

to 

0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.12 
1.40 
1.68 
1.96 
2.25 
2.53 

5§^SS5J^  :  :  : 

^eoeoeoooTiJnJ    •    •    • 

'.'.'.' 

o 

0.28 
0.56 
0.84 
1.13 
1.41 
1.69 
1.97 
2.25 
2.53 

SS?§8S  :  :  :  :  : 

^fio  cococo 

':::■. 

»o 

CO 

0.28 
0.56 
0  85 
1.13 
1.41 
1.69 
1.97 
2.26 
2.54 

§SS  ::::::: 

o 

CO 

0.28 
0.56 
0.85 
1.13 
1.41 
1.69 
1.98 
2.26 
2.54 

04 

33  ::::::::  : 

>o 

0.28 
0.57! 
0.85! 
1.18 
1.41J 
1.70, 
1.98; 

III! 

o 

0.28 
0.57 
0.85 
1.13 
1.42 
1.70 
1.98 

:  :  :  : 

lO 

wo^3^  :  :  :  :      —••••::::      :  :  :  : 
dddi-ir^  :  :  :  :      ::::.:: 

o 

gfeS  :  :  :  :  :  : 

:  :  :  : 

ooo 

d 

^  :::::::  • 



.... 

•ONia 
lowoosi 

ri©|«O-fl»lO«et-00O» 

©.-i(M«0r}<O«0l^000!) 

©2a«ss| 

S=»«««| 

286       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


SIS^IISS 

*sgssss??§& 

^SSS^g  :  : 

aoQOcooioJoJ    •    • 

8.26 

8.54 
8.81 
9.09 

o 
o> 

«  » i>;  I- 1>:  00 

8.28 
8.55 
8.&3 

od 

SSS^^g  ::.:::::: 

OOl-l>l>Q0 

o 

00 

SSS^g :::.:::::: 

I-' 

^^^  :::::::.:::. 

•ooi-  :::::::::::; 

o 
I' 

£:::::.•••:;•• 

1 

^iiiitniii: 


I 

.si 


o 

+3    . 

6° 

§88;^ 

^^ss^ 

g 

5r.§ 

oooo 

ooooo 

m 

PnOJ 

^ 

'C 

Q 

o9    . 

C! 

£.1 

h 

H 
S 

|1 

i-KNCC* 

»f5  01>00  0> 

pq 

OOOO 

ooooo 

g 

1* 

§ 

fl  Ss 

Q 

H 

SCHMITZ    TABLE. 


287 


OWOOSIHVaOd 

i-i©»eon<io«t-QO» 

OTHC*M^«o»t^oq» 

^s;si?«^ss 

a 
PQ 

Pi 

dddi-iriT-n-<(NeJ 

fiioitneoinnrii'^fti  to 

*SSSg?8g 

»(i«5tf5dddd 

&SgSS2^S§§ 

Ss$^5:gS;^^s?§ 

gigss^sas 

OOO-HrHi-iriOJOt 

<Sj5««IWCO«Tt«TP'*« 

4^  m  lo  «o  eo  «o  «o 

o 
d 

d  d  d  i-I  ^  1-1  »-i(N  «■ 

9^  w "ot  «'  d  eo  ■<!'  -^  Tf  «ci 

i^«<:»0!od«od 

00 

dddi-iTHT-n-<ci(ji 

,5 j  o»  «  CO  d  d  ■*•»»<'  -^  d 

usdddddd 

o 
ao  • 

0.27 
0.53 
0.80 
1.06 
1.83 
1.60 
1.86 
2.13 
2.89 

^  <N  «■  CO  d  CO  --t  Ti;  Tjl  d 

dddr^f-ii-Ji-IwiN' 

5  88 

5.60 
5.87 
6.13 
6.40 
6.67 
6.98 

o 

0.27 
0.53 
0.80 
1.07 
1.34 
1.60 
1.87 
2.14 
2.40 

5S8i^^s^:^sg 

^588^5^^ 

j^uicoeoeoj'Tj.^-^i.jo 

ao  >0  to  eo  eo  eo  «o 

d 

0.27 
0.54 

0.80 
1.07 
1.34 
1.61 
1.87 
2.14 
2.41 

•  *»'  d  d  d  Tf  •<«<'  •^  •<*  d 

^O^^eoeoeoeoj 

o 
d 

dddi-lT-Ir-Ii-iwd 

S§6,55£Si}§§82 

^  ©»■  d  d  d  ■*■  T(<'  ■*■  •*  d 

^dddddd 

0.27 
0.54 
0.81 
1.08 
1.34 
1.61 
1.88 
2.15 
2.42 

•c«ddd-*-^TiI-<j;d 
©1 

^wioddeod 

o 

id 

»c5SSgS§§8t2^ 

^  <N  d  d  d  -^  ni'  -*  Tj."  «n 

6.89 

5.66 
5.93 
6.20 
6.46 
6.73 
7.00 

<=><=>  O^  1-1  y-y-i  (not 

dddi-J.-Ji-!T-i(N©t 

^  d  d  d  d  •*■  ■*  tj.  -*■  d 

o 

dddi-Ji-n-fi-Ieioi 

a;^  (N  d  d  d -"ji 'I'' Tj.' T>;  d 

j^wdeoddi^;! 

2 

1 
0.27 
0.54 
0.81; 
1.08 
1.35 
1.62 
1.89 
2.17 
2.44 

^wdddTj-'-TTf-^iId 

o 

^kdtei<0<o:6t^ 

dddi-i.-Ji-Hr-i©i(?i 

^-  d  d  d  d  ■*  ■*■  -^  '*  d 

o 

0» 

0.27 
0.55 
0.82 
1.09 
1.36 
1.64 
1.91 
2.18 
2.45 

■viooeoeo-rfr^-^-^io 

« 

0.27 
0.55 
0.82 
1.09 
1.36 
1.64 
1.91 
2.18 
2.46: 

^  d  d  d  d  -^  ■*  Tf  Ti!  d 

o 

0.27 
0.55 
0.82 
1.10 
1.37 
1.64 
1.91 
2.19 
2.46 

■  o  to  d  d  d  t> 

d 

dddi-ii-Ii-J^NN 

^COCOCOCO^^^TTO 

-  ,o  so  d  d  d  i> 

•ONia 

0M008] 

1     ^NW^WOt-OOOJ 

©i-ie»eo-*«ocoi-ooo» 

gSJSI^S^lg 

^88       HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


ijss  ^^^n^^n^^^ 

o 

t- 1>  t-     t>^  00  00  00  00  OS  05  OS  o  o 

to 

i>  t-^  I-     t^  00  00  00  OS  oi  cs  OS  o"  o 

t^!>i-^     i>;o6o6oo'ososo;oso©' 

o 

00 

i>  J>  i>      (^  oo"  oo'  00  OS  OS  OS  OS  o  o 

s  m  m^mu 

o 

t^t-^t-     gjjQoadodososoiiosoo 

•«    ^^^  ^^^^^^^^^^^ 

o    ^_sg  ^^^_^^^^^^^ 

id 

t>'t^i>^     ^ododooos'dos'osoo 

o      g;ss   gssss^g^ss 

i-'j-^t-^     j^ooQOodososososoo 

o 

t-^  «>  l>      g(5  00  00  00  OS  os'  os'  o  o  o 

t-'t-'t~        "ooooodos'osos'oo'd 

o 

§5SSo    '^^g^SS?£8S?S 

l>'  l-V       3^  30  00  X  OS  OS  OS*  o  o  o 

1  mm^m^ 

o 

i>i>i^     gj^Qo'oooios'os'osodo 

" 

?gS^    g^S§^§o£;:^§ 

- 

t-l>l>         -ooooososososooo 

o 

T-l 

^■SS    S^J^S^^^"^^ 

t-t-C-            -OOQOOSOSOSOSOOO 

o 

i>i>t-^        •  00  00  OS  OS  OS  OS  d 

S5^^    iS^^^icSSsSSl 

s 

S^S^ 

SSSSJ^ 

^ 

«l 

oooo 

ooooo 

»o 

?J 

a 

•c 

1 

^6b 

(13 

^S 

T-l(N«lTj« 

JO  I©  t- 00  OS 

"^W 

oooo 

odooo 

o  o 

CO  cu 

Xi  o 

§ 

Q 

H 

_^ 

o 

(So 

« 

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s^s^s 

g 

^^ 

oooo 

ooooo 

AhM 

d 

S 

•fU 

II 

(-! 

«1 

s 

^S 

i-i(Neo-^ 

»o«oi>Q0os 

M 

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oooo 

ooooo 

» 

0.2 

H 

03  a 

oi 

^  o 

o 

H 

ft 

^ 

gCHMITZ'  TABLE. 


289 


oiaoos 
-iHyqo  J I 


ICO  tO<5^(0  «o 


*^q?§ss/^.i:g§;  ?ss_§^g^§i3g  ^.'^y■_^^^^^s^  ^ 

®  o"  i-i  •rH  ^  ,-.'©»  oj  oj  (N  **  00  eo"  TT  T« -*  Tj<  »o  »n  iri  **  so  50  «5  <»  i>  t-^  i- x  06  * 


•  Qi'itOiQi    C9'. 


<  l-  O  CJ  IC  I-  C  CO 

i  ■«t  -r  -T-  «n  1ft  «n  »» ?c  o  o  «o  t-- 1-'  t-^  00  CO 


O  o  — "  -h'  ,-<■  -^  o»  N  ir»  eo 


vi  m  CO  ^  ^  •*• -^  16  toiT.  »c  o  ?D  0 1-^  i'^  i^  C-' 


^  ^  00  >r!  1-1 00  o  -i-H  00  «n 
«0  Oi  T-<  ^  t-  OS  w  10  <-  o 

©  O  — •'  T^  i-"  i-<  0»  (N  <»  00 


05oQCi-ieo?oc!i-iTjtt^  ©5\>ifti-o« 
W  eo  CO  rr  ■«i''  -^  M<  «o  ift  ift  »o  50  «d  «5 1-^  t-^ 


r.  Tf  O  {-  -r*)  '^  {-  -^  T-.  l- 
•  O  ^  ^  ^  «,j  ^  /;  j  ^  C^ 


^l-<00-!j<TH00'*»-0ClO 

55  CO  00  T-'^  Tf  ®  05  o  J  -<*<  t> 

«^  CO  CO  -t<  -^  Tf"  -!f<'  1.0  »ft'  lO 


^  o  —'  -r-.'  T-'  mf  oj  o»  c»'  eo' 


1-.  -K  o  I-  -v  T-.  1-  -f  T-j  CO 
5^  -o  o;  i-<  TT  i-  en  IN  ic  i> 

j^  CO  eo  "*  -^'  •*  -Tc'  irr  «n  m* 


•  Oeoio< 
;  o  — '  '-<  ^'  '>>'  'ri  o^j ' 


Ooecot~--fd--<*i-i 

51=oc3s>m:-o(?»»oao 

^  co'  co'  -**  Tjl  t'  »ra  ift  ift  »o 


5©  o  i~  ■<»•  >—  X)  o  -^  oc  o 


•  xiir. 
>  O?  10  00  O  CO  CO  00 

;  ^'  ^  -^  ^'  0>  ci  TJ  C>  CO 


siocccooi-eooi- 
;^  CO  C5  c<  in  I-  o  eo  ift 

'  Tji  t'  -*  IC'  10  Ift 


^  ■»— I  1-1  -^^  ^^  r;v  '«^  ';v  v/  '.V     Q^  v,->  -i^.'  ^r  -T  'rr  «-'  «.' 
^  .-I  ^  1-1  T-l  1-11-1  ri  T-ir-l    ^_^  i-ci-l  1-1  1-1  i-(  i-i  i-c 


'i-'i-iiNM(??'r>co  -^coeOTfTjiTf 


Tj<COCi(?J 
©  1-^  1-!  i-I  i-<  w'  C»  OJ  C?  CO 


-r  —  00  IC  (??  en-  CO 
CO  O  00  i-  Th  CO  C5  ?? 

i-<  i-I  -^  C^  "N  !?»  1?  co' 


io-r»-<Qoin  (r^ojco 

iC0C005i-cTM>0J(N 

I  ^  ^  ^  (jj  (jj  ej -jj  CO 


■^  ?!  CS  CO  CO  ^  i-  ■ 


1  CO  CO  o  ■?»  -^  t>  O 

,-1  — ; ,_;  o»  oj  (?j  eo 


ea  rr  1-"  00  1ft  CO  o 
S 1-1  Tf  CO  05  CJ  10 


as  CO 


OS'-;- 


1ft- 

^ 

0  I 

ggg;: 

?2SSSS 

g 

0 

II 

0000 

oooocr 

ll 

i-nNec* 

lO<Or-QDCJ 

fa 

If 

1' 

0000 

00000 

1 

•ONiaraH 

OldODS 


^■^^^4^^^^^  gssjssggsss  isssssssss 


290      HANDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE  CHEMISTS. 


SCHMITZ'  TABLE  FOR  THE  CALCULATION  OF  PER  CENTS 
SUCROSE— ContinMed. 


op  1 

Degree  Brix. 

5  55  1 

2  Q  ■ 

1^, 

20.0 

20.5 

21.0 

21.5 

22.0 

22.5 

23.0 

23.5 

24.0 

OS  3 

40 

10  56  10  54 

10.52 

10.49 

1047 

10.46 

10.43  10  41 

10.88 

40 

41 

10.82    10.80 

10.78 

10.76 

10.74 

10.71 

10.(>9l  10.67 

10.65 

41 

42 

11.091  11.07 

11.04 

11.02 

11.00 

10.97 

10.95 

10.93 

10.90 

42 

43 

11.35 

11.33 

11.31 

11.28 

11.26 

11.24 

11.21 

11.19 

11.17 

43 

44 

11.62 

11.59 

11.57 

11.55 

11.52 

11.50 

11.47 

11.45 

11.42 

44 

45 

11.88 

11.86 

11.83 

11.81 

11.78 

11  76 

11.73 

11.71 

11.69 

45 

46 

12.15 

12.12 

12.09 

12.07 

12.05 

12.02 

12.00i  11.97 

11.94 

46 

47 

12.41 

12.39 

12.36 

12.33 

12.31 

12.28 

12.26:  12.23 

12.21 

47 

48 

12.67 

12.65 

12.62 

12.60 

12.57 

12.54 

12.521   12.49 

12.47 

48 

49 

12.94 

12.91 

12.88 

12.86 

12.83 

12.81 

12.78 

12.75 

12.73 

49 

60 

18.20 

18.18 

18.15 

18.12 

18.09 

13.07 

18  04  18  01 

12.99 

50 

51 

13.47 

13.44 

13.41 

13.39 

13.36 

13.33 

13.30    13.27 

13.25 

51 

52 

13.73 

13.70 

13.68 

13.65 

13.62 

13.59 

13.561  13.53 

13.51 

52 

53 

14.00 

13.97 

13.94 

13.91 

13.88 

13.85 

13.82 

13.79 

13.77 

58 

54 

14.26 

14. 2S 

14.20 

14.17 

14.14 

14.11 

14.08 

14.06 

14.02 

54 

55 

14.53 

14.50 

14.47 

14.44 

14.41 

14.38 

14.35 

14.32 

14.29 

55 

56 

14.79 

14.76 

14.73 

14.70 

14,67 

14.64 

14.61 

14.58 

14.55 

56 

57 

15.06 

15.02 

14.99 

14.96 

14.93 

14.90 

14.87 

14.84 

14.81 

57 

58 

15.32 

15.29 

15.26 

15.23 

15.19 

15.16 

15.13 

15.10 

15.07 

58 

59 

15.58 

15.55 

15.52 

15.49 

15.46 

15.42 

15.39 

15.36 

15.33 

59 

60 

15.86 

15.82 

15.78 

15.75 

15.72 

15.60 

15.65 

15.62 

1559 

60 

61 

16.11 

16.08 

16.05 

16.01 

15.98 

15.95 

15.91 

15.88 

15.85 

61 

62 

16.38 

16.35 

16.31 

16.28 

16.24 

16.21 

16.18 

16.14 

16.11 

62 

63 

16.64 

16.61 

16.57 

16.54 

16.51 

16.47 

16.44 

16.40 

16  37 

63 

64 

16.91 

16.87 

16.84 

16.80 

16.77 

16.73 

16.70 

16.66 

16.63 

64 

65 

17.17 

17.14 

17.10 

17.07 

17.03 

17.00 

16.96 

16.92 

16.89 

65 

66 

17.44 

17.40 

17.37 

17.33 

17.29 

17.26 

17.22    17.19! 

17.15 

66 

67 

17.70 

17.67 

17.63 

17.59 

17.56 

17.52 

17.48    17.45' 

17.41 

67 

68 

17.97 

17.93 

17.89 

17.86 

17.82 

17.78 

17.74 

17.71 

17.67 

88 

69 

18.23 

18.19 

18.16 

18.12 

18.08 

18.04 

18.00 

17.97 

17.93 

69 

70 

18.50 

18.46 

18.42 

18.38 

18.86 

18.31 

18.27 

18.28 

18.19 

70 

71 

18.76 

18.72 

18.68 

18.65 

18.61 

18.57 

18  53 

18.49 

18  45 

71 

72 

19.03 

18.99 

18.95 

18.91 

18.87 

18.83 

18.79 

18.75 

18.71 

73 

73 

19.25 

19.21 

19.17 

19.13 

19.09 

19.05 

19.01 

18.97 

73 

74 

... 

19.52 

19.48 

19.44 

19.40 

19.. 35 

19.31!   19.27 

19.23 

74 

75 

19.78 

19.74 

19.70 

19.66 

19.62 

19.57i  19.53 

19.49 

75 

76 

'.'.'. 

20.00 

19.96 

19.92 

19.88 

19.84    19.80 

19.75 

76 

77 

... 

.... 

30.27 

20.22 

20.18 

20.14 

20.10!  20.06 

20.01 

77 

78 

... 

.... 

20.49 

20.45 

20.40 

20.36!  20.32 

20.27 

78 

79 

20.75 

20.71 

20.66 

20.62 

20.58 

20.54 

79 

80 

.... 

.... 

20.97 

20.93 

20.88 

2084 

20.80 

80 

Degree  Brix  from  23  to  24. 


Tenths  of  the  Polari- 

Per  Cent 

Tenths  of  the  Polari- 

Per  Cent 

scopic  Reading. 

Sucrose. 

scopic  Reading. 

Sucrose. 

0.1 

0.03 

0.6 

0.16 

0.8 

0.05 

0.7 

0.18 

0.3 

0.08 

0.8 

0.21 

0.4 

0.10 

0.9 

0.33 

0.5 

0.13 

CORRECT  POLARISCOPIC   READING,  ETC. 


291 


260.  TABLE  SHOWING  THE  VOLUME  OF  JUICE  REQUIRED  TO 
GIVE  TWO  OR  THREE  TIMES  THE  CORRECT  POLARISCOPIC 
READING. 

(Divide  the  Reading  by  2  for  instruments  whose  factor  is  26.048  grams, 
and  by  3  for  those  whose  factor  is  16.19.) 


De- 

Factor 

De- 

IK. 

Factor 

De- 
gree. 
Brix. 

Factor 

De- 

Factor 

26.048  gr. 

Required— 

cc. 

26.048  gr. 

Required— 

cc. 

16.19  gr. 

Required— 

cc. 

16.19  gr. 

Required— 

cc. 

5 

51.1 

12.9 

49.5 

5 

47.6 

12.7 

46.2 

5.4 

51 

13.4 

49.4 

5.7 

47.5 

13.3 

46.1 

5.9 

50.9 

13.9 

49.3 

6.3 

47.4 

13.8 

46 

6.4 

50.8 

14.4 

49.2 

6.8 

47.3 

14.3 

45.9 

6.9 

50.7 

14.9 

49.1 

7.3 

47.2 

14.8 

45.8 

7.4 

50.6 

15.4 

49 

7.8 

47.1 

15.3 

45.7 

79 

50.5 

15.9 

48.9 

8.3 

47 

15.9 

45.6 

84 

50.4 

16.4 

48.8 

8.9 

46.9 

16.4 

45.5 

8.9 

50.3 

16.9 

48.7 

9.5 

46.8 

17 

45.4 

9.4 

50.2 

17.4 

48.6 

10 

46.7 

17.5 

45.3 

9.9 

50.1 

17.9 

48.5 

10.5 

46.6 

18 

45.2 

10.4 

50 

18.4 

48.4 

11 

46.5 

18.6 

45.1 

10.9 

49.9 

18.9 

48.3 

11.6 

46.4 

19.1 

45 

11.4 

49.8 

19.4 

48.2 

12.1 

46.3 

11.9 

49.7 

19.9 

48.1 

12.4 

49.6 

261.  TABLE  FOR  THE  ESTIMATION  OF  THE  APPROXIMATE 
PER  CENT  TOTAL  SOLIDS  IN  MASSECUITE,  MOLASSES,  ETC. 
(F.  E.  Coombs.) 

(Dilution  of  sampie  =  100  grams  to  500  cc.) 


Degrees  Brix  of 
Diluted  Sample. 
(Corrected  for 
Temperature.) 

Per  Cent  Solids 

Degrees  Brix  of 
Diluted  Sample. 

Per  Cent  Solids 

in 
Original  Sample. 

(Corrected  for 
Tempei-ature.) 

m 
Original  Sample. 

14.0 

73.99 

16.0 

85.25 

74.55 

.1 

85.82 

.2 

75.11 

.2 

86.39 

.3 

75.65 

.3 

86.96 

.4 

76.23 

.4 

87.53 

.5 

76.79 

.5 

88.10 

.6 

77.35 

.6 

88.67 

.7 

77.91 

.7 

89.24 

.8 

78.47 

.8 

89.81 

.9 

79.04 

.9 

90.38 

15.0 

79.60 

17.0 

90.95 

.1 

80.16 

.1 

91.52 

.2 

80.72 

.2 

92.10 

.3 

81.29 

.3 

92.67 

.4 

81.86 

.4 

93.82 

.5 

82  42 

.5 

93.82 

.6 

82.99 

.6 

94.39 

.7 

83.55 

.7 

94.97 

.8 

84.12 

.8 

95.54 

.0 

84.68 

.9 

96.12 

293       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

262.  Table  for  the  Calculation  of  the  Per  Ceut 
Sucrose  iu  Molasses,    Massecuite,  etc.    (F.    E. 

Coombs). — A  portion  of  the  solution  used  in  estimating 
the  approximate  total  solids,  equivalent  to  lo  grams  of  the 
material  {see  261),  is  transferred  to  a  lOO  cc.  sugar-flask, 
clarified,  and  polarized  as  usual.  To  calculate  the  sucrose, 
find  the  integral  part  of  the  polariscopic  reading  in  the  first 
column,  follow  the  line  to  the  right  to  the  number  under 
the  tenths  of  the  reading,  and  enter  this  number  as  the  per 
cent  sucrose  in  the  material. 


^1 

HI 

Fractional  Part  of  Polariscope  Reading 

1^1 

.0 

.1 

•2 

.3 

.4 

.5 

.6 

.7 

.8 

.9 

8.0 

20.84 

21.10 

21.36 

21.62 

21.88 

22.14 

22.40 

22.66 

22  92 

23.18 

9.0 

23.44 

23.70 

23.96 

24.22 

24.48 

24.74 

25.01 

35.27 

25.53 

25.79 

10.0 

26.04 

26.30 

26.56 

26  8-.J 

27.08 

27.34 

27.61 

27.87 

28.13 

28.39 

11.0 

28.65 

28.91 

29.17 

29.43 

29.69 

29.95 

30.22 

30.48 

30.74 

31.00 

1?.0 

31.26 

31.52 

31.78 

32.04 

32  30 

32.56 

32.82 

33.08 

33.34 

33.60 

13.0 

33.86 

34.12 

34.38 

34.64 

34.90 

35.16 

35.43 

35.69 

35.95 

36.21 

14  0 

36.47 

36.73 

36.99 

37.25 

37.51 

37.77 

38.03 

38.29 

38.55 

38.81 

15.0 

39.07 

39.33 

39.59 

39  85 

40.11 

40.37 

40.63 

40.89 

41.15 

41.41 

16.0 

41.68 

41.94 

42.20 

42.46 

42.72 

42.98 

43.24 

43.50 

43.76 

44.02 

17.0 

44  28 

44.54 

44.80 

45.06 

45.32 

45.58 

45.84 

46.10 

46.36 

46.62 

18.0 

46.89 

47.15 

47.41 

47.67 

47.93 

48.19 

48.45 

48.71 

48  97 

49.23 

19.0 

49  49 

49.75 

50.01 

50.27 

50.53 

50.79 

51.05 

51.31 

51.57 

51.83 

20.0 

52.10 

.52.36 

52.62 

52.88 

53.14 

53.40 

53.66 

53.92 

54.18 

54.44 

FOKMUL^  FOR  CALCULATION"  OF  INVERSION.   293 

263.  Formulae  *  for  the  Calculation  of  Inver- 
sion in  the  Diffusion-hattery. — The  author  is  in- 
debted to  Lieut.  A.  B.  Clements,  U.S.N.,  for  the  following 
formulae,  unless  otherwise  indicated ; 

F  —  F 

(1)  X  =  b =  inversion  in  the  battery  per  cent 

diffusion-juice; 

_  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  diffusion- juice 
*  "~  per  cent  glucose  in  the  diffusion-juice 

_  percent  sucrose  in  the  normal  juice ^ 
'  ~"  percent  glucose  in  the  normal  juice* 
b  =  per  cent  glucose  in  the  diffusion-juice j 

lOO  - 

=  1.05263. 

95 

(2)  X  =  a ^- ^—  =  inversion  in  the  battery  per  cent 

diffusion-juice; 
a  =  per  cent  sucrose  in  the  diffusion-juice; 
per  cent  glucose  in  the  diffusion-juice 

Yx  = -. -r — -TT^ : -^. —  X  100; 

per  cent  sucrose  in  the  diffusion-juice 

per  cent  glucose  in  the  normal  juice 
*,    —  ■»_ *-*   - z. .  \/  xcycw 

"      per  cent  sucrose  in  the  normal  juice 

loooo  , 
=  105.263. 

95 

(3)  \.P  —  (100  —  e)P'\  .95  =  jr  =  inversion  in  the  battery  per 
cent  diffusion-juice.  /  =  per  cent  glucose  in  diffusion- 
juice;  /•=  percent  glucose  in  the  normal  juice  -^  100;  e  ■= 
evaporation  necessary  to  concentrate  the  diffusion-juice  to 
the  same  percentage  of  sugars  as  in  the  normal  juice.  To 
obtain  e  subtract  the  sum  of  the  sugars  in  the  diffusion- 
juice  from  that  in  the  normal  juice  and  divide  the  remain- 
der by  the  sum  of  the  sugars  in  the  normal  juice.  Multi- 
ply the  quotient  by  100. 

This  formula  only  gives  approximate  results.  The  error 
amounts  to  less  than  15  lbs.  sucrose  per  1,000,000  lbs.  of 
juice  when  the  inversion  does  not  exceed  i  per  cent  (G.  L. 
Spencer). 

1  Based  upon  the  formula  of  Dr.  Stubbs  of  the  Louisiana  Bxperiment 
Station. 


294       HANDBOOK   FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 


JJ64.  »  RECIPROCALS  OF  NUMBERS  FROM  11  TO  36,  ADVANCINa 
BY  TENTHS. 


Num- 

Recip-' 
rocal. 

Num- 

Recip- 
rocal. 

Num- 

Recip. 
rocal. 

Num- 

Recip- 
rocal. 

Num- 

Recip- 
rocal. 

ber. 

ber. 

ber. 

ber. 

ber. 

11.0 

.0909 

16.0 

.0625 

21.0 

.0476 

26.0 

.0385 

31.0 

.0322 

11.1 

.0900 

16.1 

.0621 

21.1 

.0474 

26.1 

.0383 

31.1 

.0321 

11.2 

.0893 

16.2 

.0617 

21.2 

.0472 

26.2 

.0381 

31.2 

.0320 

11.3 

.0885 

163 

.0613 

21.3 

.0469 

26.3 

.0380 

31.3 

.0319 

11.4 

.0877 

16.4 

.0610 

21.4 

.0467 

26.4 

.a379 

31.4 

.0318 

11.5 

.0869 

16.5 

.0606 

21.5 

.0465 

26.5 

.0377 

31.5 

.0317 

11.6 

.0862 

16.6 

.0602 

21.6 

.0463 

26.6 

.0376 

31.6 

.0816 

11.7 

.0855 

16.7 

.0599 

21.7 

.0461 

26.7 

.0374 

31.7 

.0315 

11  8 

.0847 

16.8 

.0595 

21.8 

.0459 

26.8 

.0373 

31.8 

.0314 

11.9 

.0840  . 

16.9 

.0592 

21.9 

.0457 

26.9 

.0372 

31.9 

.0313 

12.0 

.0833 

17.0 

.0588 

22.0 

.0454 

27.0 

.0370 

32.0 

.0312 

12.1 

.0826 

17.1 

.0585 

22.1 

.0452 

27.1 

.0369 

32.1 

.0311 

12.2 

.0820 

17.2 

.0581 

22.2 

.0450 

27.2 

.0368 

32.2 

.0310 

12.3 

.0813 

17.3 

.0578 

22.3 

.0448 

27.3 

.0366 

32.3 

.0309 

124 

.0806 

17.4 

.0575 

22.4 

.0446 

27.4 

.0:J65 

32.4 

.0308 

12.5 

.0800 

17.5 

.0571 

22.5 

.0444 

27.5 

.0364 

32.5 

.0308 

12.6 

.0794  ^ 

17.6 

.0568 

22.6 

.0442 

27.6 

.a362 

32.6 

.0307 

12.7 

.0787  1 

17.7 

.0565 

22.7 

.0440 

27.7 

.0361 

32.7 

.0305 

12.8 

.0781 

17.8 

.0562 

22.8 

.0438 

27.8 

.0360 

32.8 

.a305 

12.9 

.0775 

17.9 

.0559 

22.9 

.0437 

27.9 

.0358 

32.9 

.0304 

13.0 

.0769 

18.0 

.0555 

23.0 

.0435 

2S.0 

.0357 

33.0 

.0303 

13.1 

.0763 

18.1 

.05,52 

23.1 

.0432 

28.1 

.0356 

33.1 

.0302 

13.2 

.0757 

18.2 

.0549 

23.2 

.0431 

28.2 

.a355 

33.2 

.0301 

13.3 

.0752 

18.3 

.0546 

23.3 

.0429 

28.3 

.0353 

33.3 

.0300 

13.4 

.0746 

18.4 

.0543 

23.4 

.0427 

28.4 

.0352 

33.4 

.0299 

13.5 

.0741 

18.5 

.0540 

23.5 

.0425 

28.5 

.0351 

33.5 

.0298 

13.6 

.0735 

18.6 

.0538 

23.6 

.0424 

28.6 

.0350 

33.6 

.0297 

13.7 

.0730  s 

18.7 

.0535 

23.7 

.0422 

28.7 

.0348 

33.7 

.0296 

13.8 

.0725  ! 

18.8 

.0532 

23.8 

.0420 

28.8 

.0347 

33.8 

.0295 

13.9 

.0719  [ 

18.9 

.0529 

23.9 

.0418 

28.9 

.0346 

33.9 

.0295 

14.0 

.0714  i 

19.0 

.0526 

24.0 

.0417 

29.0 

.0345 

34.0 

.0294 

14.1 

.0709 

19.1 

.0523 

24.1 

.0415 

29.1 

.0344 

34.1 

0293 

14.2 

.0704 

19.2 

.0521 

24.2 

.0413 

29.2 

.0342 

34  2 

.0292 

14.3 

.0699 

19.3 

.0518 

24.3 

.0411 

29.3 

.0341 

34.3 

.0291 

14.4 

.0694 

19.4 

.0515 

24.4 

.0409 

29.4 

.0340 

34.4 

.0290 

14.5 

.0690 

19.5 

.0513 

24.5 

.0408 

29.5 

.0339 

34.5 

.0289 

14.6 

.0685 

19.6 

.0510 

24.6 

.0406 

29.6 

.0338 

34  6 

.0289 

14.7 

.0680 

19.7 

.0508 

24.7 

.0405 

29.7 

.0337 

34.7 

.0288 

14.8 

.0676 

19.8 

.0505 

24.8 

.0403 

29.8 

.0335 

34.8 

.0287 

14.9 

.0671 

19.9 

.0502 

24.9 

.0402 

29.9 

.0334 

34.9 

.0286 

16.0 

.0667 

20.0 

.0500 

25.0 

.0400 

30.0 

.0333 

85.0 

.0285 

15.1 

.0662 

20.1 

.0497 

25.1 

.0;i98 

30.1 

.0.332 

35.1 

.0284 

15.2 

.0658 

20.2 

.0495 

25.2 

.0397 

30.2 

.0331 

35.2 

.0284 

15.3 

.0654 

20.3 

.0493 

25.3 

.0395 

30.3 

.0330 

35  3 

.0283 

15.4 

.0649 

20.4 

.0490 

25.4 

.0394 

:^0.4 

.0329 

35.4 

.0282 

15.5 

.0645 

20.5 

.0488 

25.5 

.0392 

30.5 

.0328 

35.5 

.0283 

15.6 

.0641 

20.6 

.0485 

25.6 

.0391 

30.6 

.0327 

35.6 

.0281 

15.7 

.0637 

20.7 

.0483 

25.7 

.0389 

30.7 

.0326 

35.7 

.0280 

15.8 

.0633 

20.8 

.0481 

25.8 

.0388 

30.8 

.0325 

35.8 

.0279 

15.9 

.0629 

20.9 

.0478 

25.9 

.0386 

30.9 

.0324 

35.9 

.0278 

*  See  page  87  for  suggestions  relative  to  the  use  of  this  table. 


COEFFICIENTS   OF   PURITY.  29o 

865.  TABLE  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  COEFFICIENTS  OF 

PURITY.— (G.   KOTTMANN.) 


^i 

Per  Cent  of  Non-Sucrose  =  Degree  Brix 

MINUS 

Per  1 

gH 

1                                   Cent  Sucrose.                                   | 

o§ 

11 

i" 

iio 

1.1 

1.2 

1.3      14 

1.5 

1.6 

1.7 

1.8 

II 

8.0 

88.9 

87.9 

87.0 

86.0 

85.1 

84.2 

83.3 

82.5 

81.6 

8  0 

8.2 

89  1 

88.2 

87  2 

86.3 

85.4 

84.5 

83.7 

82.8 

82.0 

8.2 

8.4 

89.4 

88.4 

87.5 

86.6 

85.7 

84.8 

84.0 

83.2 

82.3 

8.4 

8.6 

89.6 

88  7 

87.8 

86.9 

86.0 

85.1 

M.3 

83.5 

82.7 

8.6 

8.8 

89.8 

88.9 

88.0 

87.1 

86.3 

85.4 

84.6 

83.8 

83.0 

8.8 

9  0 

90.0 

89.1 

88.2 

87.4 

86.5 

85.7 

84.9 

84.1 

83.3 

90 

9.2 

90.2 

89  3 

88.5 

87.6 

86.8 

86.0 

85.2 

MA 

83.6 

9.2 

9.4 

90.4 

89.5 

88.7 

87.8 

87.0 

86.2 

85.5 

&4.7 

83.9 

9.4 

9.6 

90.6 

89.7 

88.9 

88.1 

87.3 

86.5 

85.7 

85.0 

84.2 

9.6 

9.8 

90.7 

89.9 

89.1 

88.3 

87.5 

86.7 

86.0 

85.2 

84.5 

9.8 

10  0 

90.9 

90.1 

89.3 

88.5 

87.7 

87.0 

86.2 

65.5 

84.7 

10.0 

10.2 

91.1 

90.8 

89.5 

88.7 

87.9 

87.2 

86.4 

85.7 

85.0 

10  2 

10.4 

91.2 

90.4 

89.7 

88.9 

88.1 

87.4 

86.7 

86.0 

85.2 

10.4 

10.6 

91.4 

90.6 

89.8 

89.1 

88.3 

87.6 

86.9 

86.2 

86.5 

10.6 

10.8 

,  91.5 

90.8 

90.0 

89.3 

88.5 

87.8 

87.1 

86.4 

85.7 

10.8 

11  0 

91.7 

90.9 

90.2 

89.4 

88.7 

88.0 

87.3 

86.6 

85.9 

11.0 

11.2 

91.8 

91.1 

90.3 

89.6 

88.9 

88.2 

87.5 

86.8 

86.2 

11.2 

11.4 

91.9 

91.2 

90.5 

89.8 

89.1 

88.4 

87.7 

87.0 

86.4 

11.4 

11.6 

;  92.1 

91.3 

90  6 

89.9 

89.2 

88.5 

87.9 

87.2 

86.6 

11.6 

11.8 

92.2 

91.5 

90.8 

90.1 

89.4 

88.7 

88.1 

87.4 

86.8 

11.8 

12  0 

92.3 

91.6 

90.9 

90.2 

89.6 

88.9 

88.2 

87.6 

87.0 

12.0 

12.2 

92.4 

91.7 

91.0 

904 

89.7 

89.1 

88.4 

87.8 

87.1 

12.2 

12.4 

92.5 

91.9 

91.2 

90.5 

89.9 

89.2 

88.6 

87.9 

87.3 

12.4 

12.6 

92.6 

92.0 

91.3 

90.6 

90.0 

89.4 

88.7 

88.1 

87.5 

12.6 

12.8 

92.8 

92.1 

91.4 

90.8 

90.1 

89.5 

88.9 

88.3 

87.7 

12.8 

130 

■  92.9 

92.2 

91.5 

90.9 

90.3 

89.7 

89.0 

88.4 

87.8 

13.0 

13.2 

93.0 

92.3 

91.7 

91.0 

90.4 

89.8 

892 

88.6 

88.0 

13.2 

13.4 

93.1 

92.4 

91.8 

91.2 

90.5 

89.9 

89.3 

88.7 

88.2 

13.4 

13.6 

93.2 

92.5 

91.9 

91.3 

90.7 

90.1 

89.5 

88.9 

88.3 

13.6 

13.8 

98.2 

j 

92.6 

92.0 

91.4 

90.8 

90.2 

89.6 

89.0 

88.5 

13.8 

14  0 

'  93.3 

92.7 

92.1 

91.5 

90.9 

90.3 

89.7 

89.2 

88.6 

14.0 

14.2 

;  93.4 

92.8 

92.2 

91.6 

91.0 

90.4 

89.9 

89.3 

88.8 

14.2 

14.4 

93.5 

92.9 

92.3 

91.7 

91.1 

90.6 

90.0 

89.4 

88.9 

14.4 

14.6 

'  93.6 

930 

92.4 

91.8 

91.3 

90.7 

90.1 

89.6 

89.0 

14.6 

14.8 

|93.7 

93  1 

92.5 

91.9 

91.4 

90.8 

90.2 

89.7 

89.2 

14.8 

15  0 

,  93.7 

93.2 

92.6 

920 

91.5 

90.9 

90.4 

89.8 

89.3 

15.0 

15.2 

!  93.8 

93.3 

92.7 

92.1 

91.6 

91.0 

90.5 

89.9 

89.4 

15.2 

15.4 

93  9 

93.3 

92.8 

92.2 

91.7 

91.1 

90.6 

90.1 

89.5 

15.4 

15.6 

,  94.0 

93.4 

92.8 

92.3 

91.8 

91.2 

90.7 

90.2 

89.7 

15.6 

15.8 

94.1 

93.5 

92.9 

92.4 

91.9 

91.3 

90.8 

90.3 

89.8 

15.8 

16  0 

94.1 

93.6 

93.0 

92.5 

92.0 

91.4 

90.9 

90.4 

89  9 

16.0 

16.2 

94.2 

93.7 

93.1 

92.6 

92.0 

91.5 

91.0 

90.5 

90.0 

16.2 

16.4 

94.3 

93.7 

93.2 

92.6 

92.1 

91.6 

91.1 

90.6 

90.1 

16.4 

16.6 

94.3 

93.8 

93.3 

92.7 

92.2 

91.7 

91.2 

90.7 

90.2 

16.6 

16.8 

94.4 

93.9 

93.3 

92.8 

92.3 

91.8 

91.3 

90.8 

90.3 

16.8 

17.0 

94.4 

93.9 

93.4 

92.9 

92.4 

91.9 

91.4 

90.9 

90.4 

17.0 

'6       HANDBOOK   FOR   SUGAR-HOdSI:   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  COEFFICIENTS  OF 
FVBITY.— Continued. 


gH 

Pee  Cent  of  Non-Sucrose  =  Degree  Brix 

MINUS 

Per 

ga 

H  O 

Cent  Sucrose. 

H    Q 

O  aj 

O  flj 

II 

1.9 

2.0 

2.1 

2.2 

2.3 

2.4 

2.5 

2.6 

2.7 

£l 

8.0 

80.8 

80.0 

79.2 

78.4 

77.7 

76.9 

76.2 

75.5 

74.8 

8.0 

8.2 

81.2 

80.4 

79.6 

78.8 

78.1 

77.4 

76.6 

75.9 

75.2 

8.2 

8.4 

81.5 

80.8 

80.0 

79.2 

78.5 

77.8 

77.1 

76.4 

75.7 

8.4 

8.6 

81.9 

81.1 

80.4 

79.6 

78.9 

78.2 

77.5 

76.8 

76.1 

8.6 

8.8 

82.2 

81.5 

80.7 

80.0 

79.3 

78.6 

77.9 

77.2 

76.5 

8.8 

9  0 

82.6 

81.8 

81.1 

80.4 

79.6 

78.9 

78.3 

77.6 

76.9 

9.0 

9.2 

82.9 

82.1 

81.4 

80.7 

80.0 

79.3 

78.6 

77.9 

77.3 

9.2 

9.4 

83.2 

82.5 

81.7 

81.0 

80.3 

79.7 

79.0 

78.3 

77.7 

9.4 

9.6 

83.5 

82.8 

82.1 

81.4 

80.7 

80.0 

79.3 

78.7 

78.0 

9.6 

9.8 

83.8 

83.1 

82.4 

81.7 

81.0 

80.3 

79.7 

79.0 

78.4 

9.8 

10  0 

84.0 

83.3 

82.6 

82.0 

81.3 

80.6 

80.0 

79.4 

78.7 

10.0 

10.2 

84.3 

83.6 

82.9 

82.3 

81.6 

81.0 

80.3 

79.7 

79.1 

10.2 

10.4 

84.6 

83.9 

83.2 

82.5 

81.9 

81.2 

80.6 

80.0 

79.4 

10.4 

10.6 

84.8 

84.1 

as. 5 

82.8 

82.2 

81.5 

80.9 

80.3 

79.7 

10.6 

10.8 

85.0 

84.4 

83.7 

83.1 

82.4 

81.8 

81.2 

80.6 

80.0 

10.8 

11.0 

85.3 

84.6 

84.0 

83.3 

82.7 

82.1 

81.5 

80.9 

80.3 

11.0 

11.2 

85.5 

84.8 

81.2 

83.6 

83.0 

82.4 

81.8 

81.2 

80.6 

11.2 

11.4 

85.7 

85.1 

84.4 

83.8 

83  2 

82.6 

82.0 

81.4 

80.9 

11.4 

11.6 

85.9 

85.3 

84.7 

84.1 

83.5 

82.9 

82.3 

81.7 

81.1 

11.6 

11.8 

86.1 

85.5 

84  9 

84.3 

83.7 

83.1 

82.5 

81.9 

81.4 

11.8 

12  0 

86  3 

85.7 

85.1 

84.5 

83.9 

83.3 

82.8 

82.2 

81.6 

120 

12.2 

86.5 

85.9 

85.3 

84.7 

84.1 

83.6 

83.0 

82.4 

81.9 

12.2 

12.4 

86.7 

86.1 

85.5 

84.9 

84.4 

83.8 

83.2 

82.7 

82.1 

12.4 

12.6 

86.9 

86.3 

85.-7 

85.1 

84.6 

84.0 

834 

82.9 

82.4 

12.6 

12.8 

87.1 

86.5 

85.9 

85.3 

84.8 

84.2 

83.7 

83.1 

82.6 

12.8 

13.0 

87.2 

86.7 

86.1 

85.5 

&5.0 

84.4 

83.9 

83.3 

82.8 

18  0 

13.2 

87.4 

86.8 

86.3 

85.7 

85.2 

84.6 

84.1 

83.5 

83.0 

13.2 

13.4 

87.6 

87.0 

86.5 

85.9 

85.4 

84.8 

84.3 

83.7 

83.2 

13.4 

13.6 

87.7 

87.2 

86.6 

86.1 

85.5 

85.0 

84.5 

83.9 

83.4 

13.6 

13.8 

87.9 

87.3 

86.8 

86.3 

85.7 

85.2 

84.7 

84.1 

83.6 

13.8 

14  0 

88.1 

87.5 

87.0 

88.4 

85.9 

85.4 

84.8 

84.3 

83.8 

14.0 

14.2 

88  2 

87.7 

87.1 

86.6 

86.1 

85.5 

85.0 

84.5 

84.0 

14.2 

14.4 

88.3 

87.8 

87.3 

86.7 

86.2 

85.7 

85.2 

84.7 

84.2 

14.4 

14.6 

88.5 

88.0 

87.4 

86.9 

86.4 

85.9 

85.4 

84.9 

84.4 

14.6 

14.8 

88.6 

88.1 

87.6 

87.1 

86.5 

86.0 

85.5 

85.1 

84.6 

14.8 

15  0 

88.8 

88.2 

87.7 

87.2 

86.7 

86.2 

85.7 

85.2 

847 

15.0 

15.2 

88.9 

88.4 

87.9 

87.4 

86.9 

86.4 

85.9 

85.4 

84.9 

15.2 

15.4 

89.0 

88.5 

88.0 

87.5 

87.0 

86.5 

86.0 

85.6 

85.1 

15.4 

15.6 

89.1 

88.6 

88.1 

87.6 

87  2 

86.7 

86.2 

85.7 

85.2 

15.6 

15.8 

89.3 

88.8 

88.3 

87.8 

87.3 

86.8 

86.3 

85.9 

85.4 

15.8 

16.0 

89.4 

88.9 

88.4 

87.9 

87.4 

87.0 

86.5 

86.0 

85.6 

16.0 

16.2 

89.5 

89  0 

88.5 

88.0 

87.6 

87.1 

86.6 

86.2 

85.7 

16.2 

16.4 

89.6 

89.1 

88.6 

88.2 

87.7 

87.2 

86.8 

86.3 

85.9 

16.4 

16.6 

89.7 

89.2 

88.8 

88.3 

87.8 

87.4 

86.9 

86.5 

86.0 

16.6 

16.8 

89.8 

89.4 

88.9 

88.4 

88.0 

87.5 

87.0 

86.6 

86.2 

16.8 

17.0 

89.9 

895 

89.0 

88.5 

88.1 

87.6 

87.2 

86.7 

86.3 

17.0 

Coefficients  of  ruEiTY. 


TABLE  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  COEFFICIENTS  OP 
FVRITY.— Continued. 


^i 

Per  Cent  of  Non-Sucrose  =  Degree  Brix  minus  Per  | 

^i 

Si 

Cent  Sucrose. 

1 

ai 

t6  ^ 

f^  s 

2.8 

2.9 

3.0 

3  1 

3  2 

3  3 

3  4 

3  6 

3.6 

(£S 

8.0 

74.1 

73.4 

72.7 

72.1 

71.4 

70,8 

70.2 

69.6 

69.0 

8.0 

8.2 

74.5 

73.9 

73.2 

72.6 

71.9 

71.3 

70.7 

70.1 

69.5 

8.2 

8.4 

75.0 

74.3 

73.7 

73.0 

72.4 

71.8 

71.2 

706 

70.0 

8.4 

8.6 

75.4 

74.8 

74.1 

73.5 

72.9 

72.3 

71.7 

71.1 

70.5 

8.6 

8.8 

75.9 

75.2 

74.6 

73.9 

73.3 

72.7 

72.1 

71.5 

71  0 

8.8 

9  0 

76.3 

75.6 

75.0 

74.4 

73.8 

73.2 

72.6 

72.0 

71.4 

9.0 

9.2 

76.7 

76.0 

75.4 

74.8 

74  2 

73  6 

73.0 

72.4 

71.9 

9.2 

9  4 

77.0 

76.4 

75.8 

75.2 

74.6 

74.0 

73.4 

72.9 

72.3 

9.4 

9.G 

77.4 

76.8 

76.2 

75.6 

75.0 

74.4 

73.8 

73.3 

72.7 

9  6 

9.8 

77.8 

77.2 

76.6 

76.0 

75.4 

74.8 

74.2 

73.7 

73.1 

9.8 

10.0 

78.1 

77.5 

76.9 

76.3 

75.8 

75.2 

74.6 

74.1 

73.5 

10  0 

10.2 

78.5 

':7.9 

77.3 

76.7 

76.1 

75.6 

IS.O 

74.5 

73.9 

10.2 

10.4 

78.8 

78.2 

77.6 

17.0 

76.5 

75.9 

75.4 

74.8 

74.3 

10.4 

10.6 

79.1 

78.5 

77.9 

77.4 

76.8 

76.3 

75.7 

75.2 

74.6 

10.6 

10.8 

79.4 

78  8 

78.3 

77.7 

77.1 

76.6 

76.1 

75.5 

75.0 

10.8 

11.0 

79.7 

79.1 

78.6 

78.0 

77.5 

76.9 

76.4 

75.9 

75.3 

11.0 

11.2 

80.0 

79.4 

78.9 

78.3 

17.8 

77.2 

76.7 

76.2 

75.7 

11.2 

11.4 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78. G 

78.1 

77.6 

77.0 

76.5 

76.0 

11.4 

11.6 

80.6 

80.0 

79.4 

78.9 

78.4 

77.9 

77.3 

76.8 

76.3 

11.6 

11.8 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.7 

78.1 

77.6 

77.1 

76.6 

11.8 

12  0 

81.1 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

78.9 

78.4 

77.9 

77.4 

76.9 

12  0 

12.2 

81.3 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.7 

78.2 

77.7 

77.2 

12.2 

12.4 

81.6 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78.5 

78.0 

77.5 

12.4 

12.6 

81.8 

81.3 

80.8 

80.3 

79.7 

79.2 

78.8 

78.3 

77.8 

12.6 

12.8 

82.1 

81.5 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78.5 

78.0 

12.8 

13  0 

82.3 

81.8 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

';9.3 

78.8 

78.3 

13.0 

13.2 

82.5 

82.0 

81.5 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.0 

78.6 

13.2 

13  4 

82.7 

82.2 

81.7 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

79.3 

78.8 

13.4 

13.6 

82.9 

824 

81.9 

81.4 

81.0 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

79.1 

13.6 

13.8 

83.1 

82.6 

88.1 

81.7 

81.2 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

79.3 

13,8 

14  0 

83.3 

82.8 

82.3 

81.9 

81.4 

80.9 

80.5 

80.0 

79.5 

14  0 

14.2 

83.5 

83.0 

82.5 

82.1 

81.6 

81.1 

80.7 

80.2 

79.8 

14.2 

14.4 

83.7 

83.2 

82.7 

82.3 

81.8. 

81.4 

80.9 

80.4 

80.0 

14.4 

14.6 

83.9 

83.4 

82.9 

82.5 

82.0 

81.6 

81.1 

80.7 

80.2 

14.6 

14.8 

84.1 

83.6 

83.1 

82.7 

82.2 

81.8 

81.3 

80.9 

80.4 

14.8 

15.0 

84.3 

83.8 

83.3 

82.9 

82.4 

82.0 

81.5 

81.1 

80.6 

15  0 

15.2 

84.4 

84.0 

83.5 

83.1 

82.6 

82.2 

81.7 

81.3 

80.8 

15.2 

15.4 

84.6 

84.2 

83.7 

83.2 

82.8 

82.4 

81.9 

81.5 

81.0 

15.4 

15.6 

84.8 

84.3 

83.9 

83.4 

83.0 

82.5 

82.1 

81.7 

81.2 

15.6 

15.8 

84.9 

84.5 

84.0 

83.6 

83.2. 

82.7 

82.3 

81.9 

81.4 

15  8 

16.0 

85.1  1  84.7 

84.2 

83.8 

83.3 

82  9 

82.5 

82.0 

81.6 

16.0 

16.2 

85.3 

84.8 

84.4 

as. 9 

83.5 

83.1 

82.7 

82.2 

81  8 

16.2 

16.4 

85.4 

84.9 

84.5 

84.1 

83.7 

83.2 

82.8 

82.4 

82.0 

16.4 

16.6 

85.6 

85.1 

84.7 

84.3 

83.8 

83.4 

83.0 

82.6 

82.2 

16.6 

16.8 

85.7 

85.3 

84.8 

84.4 

84.0 

83.6 

83.2 

82.8 

824 

16.8 

17.0 

85.9 

85.4 

85.0 

84.6 

84.2 

83.7 

83.3 

82.9 

82.5 

17.0 

2d8       HAKDBOOK  FOR  SUGAR-HOUSE   CHEMISTS. 

TABLE  FOR  THE  DETERMINATION  OF  COEFFICIENTS  OP 
FVRITY.— Continued. 


^i 

Per  Cent  of  Non-Sucrose  =  Degree  Brix  minus  Per 

gH 

Cent  Sucrose. 

o« 

p2^ 

3  7 

3.8 

8.9 

4.0 

4.1 

4.2 

4.3 

4.4  1    4.6 

II 

8.0 

68.4 

67.8 

67.2 

66.7 

66.1 

65.6 

65.0 

64.5 

64.0 

8.0 

8.2 

68.9 

68.3 

67.8 

67.2 

66.7 

66.1 

65.6 

65.1 

64.6 

8.2 

8.4 

69.4 

68.8 

68.3 

67.7 

67.2 

66.7 

66.1 

65.6 

65.1 

8.4 

8.6 

69.9 

69.3 

68.8 

68.3 

67.7 

67.2 

66.7 

66.2 

65.6 

8.6 

8.8 

70.4 

69.8 

69.3 

68.8 

68.2 

67.7 

6-7.2 

66.7 

66.2 

8.8 

9.0 

70.9 

70.3 

69.8 

69.2 

68.7 

68.2 

67  7 

67.2 

68.7 

9.0 

92 

71.3 

70.8 

70.2 

69.7 

69.2 

68.7 

68.1 

67.6 

67.2 

9.2 

9.4 

71.8 

71.2 

70.7 

70.1 

69.6 

69.1 

68.6 

68.1 

67.6 

9.4 

9.6 

72.2 

71.6 

71.1 

70.6 

70.1 

69.6 

69.1 

68.6 

68.1 

9.6 

9.8 

72.6 

72.1 

71.5 

71.0 

70.5 

70.0 

69.5 

69.0 

68.5 

9.8 

10.0 

73.0 

72.5 

71.9 

71.4 

70.9 

70.4 

69.9 

69.4 

69.0 

10.0 

10.2 

73.4 

72.9 

72.3 

71.8 

71.3 

70.8 

70.3 

69.9 

69.4 

10.2 

10.4 

73.8 

73.2 

72.7 

72.2 

71.7 

71.2 

70.7 

70.3 

69.8 

10.4 

10.6 

74.1 

73.6 

73.1 

72.6 

72.1 

71.6 

71.1 

70.7 

70.2 

10.6 

10.8 

74.5 

74.0 

73.5 

73.0 

72.5 

72.0 

71.5 

71.1 

70.6 

10.8 

11  0 

74.8 

74.3 

73.8 

73.3 

72.8 

72.4 

71.9 

71.4 

71.0 

11.0 

11.2 

75.2 

74.7 

74.2 

73.7 

73.2 

72.7 

72.3 

71.8 

71.3 

11.2 

11.4 

75.5 

75.0 

74.5 

74.0 

73.5 

73.1 

72.6 

72.2 

71.7 

11.4 

11.6 

75.8 

75.3 

74.8 

74.4 

73.9 

73.4 

73.0 

72.5 

72.0 

11.6 

11.8 

76.1 

75.6 

75.2 

74.7 

74.2 

73.8 

73.3 

72.8 

72.4 

11.8 

12  0 

76.4 

75.9 

75.5 

75.0 

74.5 

74.1 

73.6 

73.2 

72.7 

12.0 

12.2 

76.7 

76.2 

75.8 

75.3 

74.8 

74.4 

73.9 

73.5 

73.1 

12.2 

12.4 

77.0 

76.5 

76.1 

75.6 

75.2 

74.7 

74.3 

73.8 

73.4 

12.4 

12.6 

77.3 

76.8 

76.4 

75.9 

75.4 

75.0 

74.6 

74.1 

73.7 

12.6 

12.8 

77.6 

77.1 

76.6 

76.2 

75.7 

75.3 

74.9r 

74.4 

74.0 

12.8 

18  0 

77.8 

77.4 

76.9 

76.5 

76.0 

75.6 

75.1 

74.7 

74.3 

18  0 

13.2 

78.1 

77.6 

77.2 

70.7 

76.3 

75.9 

75.4 

75.0 

74.6 

13.2 

13.4 

78.4 

77.9 

77.5 

77.0 

76.6 

76.1 

75.7 

75.3 

74.9 

13.4 

13.6 

78.6 

78.2 

77.7 

77.3 

76.8 

76.4 

76.0 

75.6 

75.1 

13.6 

13.8 

78.9 

78.4 

78.0 

77.5 

77.1 

76.7 

76.2 

75.8 

75.4 

13.8 

14  0 

79.1 

78.7 

78.2 

77.8 

77.3 

76.9 

76.5 

76.1 

75.7 

14.0 

14.2 

79  3 

78.9 

78.5 

78.0 

77.6 

77.2 

76.8 

76.3 

75.9 

14.2 

14.4 

79.6 

79.1 

78.7 

78.3 

77.8 

77.4 

77.0 

76.6 

76.2 

14.4 

14.6 

79.8 

79.3 

78.9 

78.5 

78.1 

77.6 

77.2 

76.8 

76.4 

14.6 

14.8 

80.0 

79.6 

79.1 

78.7 

78.3 

77.9 

77.5 

77.1 

76.7 

14.8 

16.0 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

78.9 

78.5 

78.1 

77.7 

77.3 

76.9 

15  0 

15.2 

80.4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78.8 

78.4 

77.9 

77.6 

77.2 

15.2 

15.4 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.2 

77.8 

77.4 

15.4 

15.6 

80.8 

80.4 

800 

79.6 

79.2 

78.8 

78.4 

78.0 

77.6 

15.6 

15.8 

81.0 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.2 

77.8 

15.8 

16.0 

81.2 

80.8 

80.4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78.8 

78.4 

78.0 

16.0 

16.2 

81.4 

81.0 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.6 

78.3 

16.2 

16.4 

81.6 

81.2 

80.8 

80.4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78.8 

78.5 

16.4 

16.6 

81.8 

81.4 

81.0 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.0 

78.7 

16.6 

16.8 

82.0 

81.6 

81.2 

80.8 

80.4 

80.0 

79.6 

79.2 

78.9 

16.8 

17.0 

82.1 

81.7 

81.3 

81.0 

80.6 

80.2 

79.8 

79.4 

79.1 

17.0 

DEGREES  OF   POLARISCOPIC   SCALES,  ETC.        29d 

266.  Value   of  the  Degrees  of  Polariscopic 
Scales. 

Qrams  sugar 
in  100  cc. 

scale  of  Mitscherlich =  .750 

"     "   Soleil-Dubosq =.1619 

"     **  Ventzke-Soleil =.36048 

*'     **   Wild  (sugar  scale) =  .10 

"     "   Laurent  and  Dubosq  (Shadow)  =.1619 
1°  scale    of   Mitscherlich  =  4°.635   Soleil-Dubosq  =  2°. 879 
Soleil-Ventzke. 

1°  scale   of     Soleil-Dubosq  =  .315°    Mitscherlich  =  .630" 
Ventzke-Soleil  =  1°.619  Wild. 

1"  scale    of  Ventzke  =  .346°  Mitscherlich  =  1°.608  Soleil- 
Dubosq  =  2V648  Wild. 

1°  scale  of  Wild  (sugar-scale)  =  .618°  Soleil-Dubosq  =  .384* 
Soleil-Ventzke  =  .133'  Mitscherlich. 

Circular  Degrees. 
V  Wild  (sugar-scale)  =  .  1 838  Circular  degree  D. 
/l°Soleil-Dubosq. ...  =.3167        "  "     D. 

JV      "         "       . . . .  =  .3450       *'  '*     J. 

JV  Soleil-Ventzke .. . .  =  .3455       "  '•     D. 

JV      "  "      ....  =  .3906       *'  "    j. 

267.  Clerget's   Constant.     Results   of   Rede- 
terminations.   (A.  Wohl,  Zeit.  ftir  Zucker,  Aug.  1888.) 
Weight  of     Concentration  of  Invert 

Sucrose.       Invert  Solution.         Reading.  Constant. 

13.034  13.700  -16.34  142.7 

6.513  6.855  -    7.93  143.3 

3.356  3.437  -    3.80  140.4 

These  numbers  correspond  very  nearly  with  the  mean  of 
Landolt's  determination& 


BLAISTK   FORMS 

FOR  PRACTICAL  USE 


-nr 


_STJGAR^HOUSE   WORK. 


SEASON  OF 

BEETS  AND 

Dates. 

I 

Beets  \\orked. 
Tons. 

Number  of 
Diffusers. 

Be  ts  per 
Diffuser. 

Juic^  %  Beets. 
Gals,  or 
Litres. 

' 

, 

DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


Max. 

Temp. 

Specific 

Gravity  of 

Juice. 

Volume  of  the  Juice. 
Gals,  or  Litres. 

Weight  of  the  Juice. 
Pounds. 

1 

': 

. 

- 

303 


SEASOl 

J  OF 

BEETS  AND 

Dates. 

Beets  Worked. 
Tons. 

Number  of 
Diffusers. 

Beets  per 
DifEuser. 

Juice  ^  Beets. 
Gals,  or 
Litres. 

• 

.    .       ^- 

i 

i 

8(U 


DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


Max. 
Temp. 

Specific 

Gravity  of 

Juice. 

Volume  of  the  Juice. 
Gals,  or  Litres. 

Weight  of  the  Juice. 
Pounds. 

" 

1 

'■ 

' 

rt— 

806 


SEASON  OF 

BEETS  AND 

Dates. 

1 

Beets  Worked. 

I                  Tons. 

1! 

Number  of 
Diffusers. 

Beets  per 
Diffuser. 

Juice  %  Beets. 
Gals,  or 
Litres. 

1 

806 


F 


DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


Max. 
Temp. 

Specific 

Gravity  of 

Juice. 

Volume  of  the  Juice. 
Gals,  or  Litres. 

Weight  of  the  Juice. 
Pounds. 

i 
I                       1 

• 

i 

1 

807 


SEASON 

OF 

BEETS  AND       i 

Dates. 

Beets  Worked. 
Tons. 

Number  of 
Diffusers. 

Beets  per 
Diffuser. 

Juice  %  Beets. 
Gals,  or 
Litres. 

1 

. 

■• 

DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


Max. 
Temp. 

Specific 

Gravity  of 

Juice. 

Volume  of  the  Juice.         Weight  of  the  Juice. 
Gals,  or  Litres.                          Pounds. 

^ 

' 

800 


SEASON  OF. 


BEETS  AND 


Dates. 

Beets  Worked. 
Tons. 

Number  of 
Diflf  users. 

Be?ts  per 
Diffuser. 

Juice  %  Beets. 
Gals,  or 
Litres. 

J 

, 

■ 

i             ^ 

. 

810 


DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


Max. 
Temp, 

Specific 

Gravity  of 

Juice. 

Volume  of  the  Juice. 
Gals,  or  Litres. 

Weight  of  the  Juice. 
Pounds. 

I 

1 

811 


SEASON 

OF 

LOSSES  IN  THB 

Dates. 

Sucrose  %  Beets 

Fresh  Cossettes. 

Diffusion  juice. 

Diffusion  Losses,  by 
Difference. 

' —    ^ 

• 

' 

t 

1 

- 

! 

A  . 

JSL 


DIFFUSION. 


IN  THE  COSSETTKS,  LOSSES,  ETC. 

Dates. 

Exhausted 
Cossettes. 

Waste  W^ter. 

Total  Losses. 

Not  Deter- 
mined. 

..  __ 

' 

, 

' 

-■    A      .-. --^  ..^ 

1 

,. 

,', 

! 

ma 

SEASON  OF. 


LOSSES  IN  THE 


Dates. 

Sucrose  %  Beets 

Fresh  Cossettes 

Diflfusion- juice. 

Diflfusion  Losses,  by 
Diflference. 

i 

i 

I 

f 

1 

' 

* 

ML 


DIFFUSION. 


IN  THE   COSSETTKS,   LOSSES,   ETC. 


Dates. 

Exhausted      1   „.         ,„ 
Cossettes.       j    Wastewater. 

Total  Losses. 

Not  Deter* 
mined. 

-"  — — 

..___._„.__„-_, 

1 

i                i 

01$. 


»1!-A»U.> 

UF 

LOSSES  IN  THE 

Dates. 

SccROSK  %  Bkets 

Fresh  Cossettes. 

Diffusion  juice. 

Diffusion  Losses,  by 
Difference. 

-» 

\ 

i 

„ 

\ 

I 

• 

S16 


DIFFUSION. 


IN  THE  COSSETTES,  LOSSES,  ETC. 

Dates. 

Exhausted 

Cossettes. 

Waste  Water. 

Total  Losses. 

Not  Deter- 
mined. 

[ 

) 

J 

! 

m 

SEASON  OF, 


LOSSES  IN  THE 


Dates. 

Sucrose  %  Beets 

Fresh  Cossettes. 

Diffusion- juice. 

Diffusion  Losses,  by 
Difference. 

' 

' 

J 

•* 

J 

joa. 


DIFFUSION. 


IN  THE  COSSKTTKS,  LoSSES,  ETC. 


Dates. 

Exhausted 
Cossettes. 

Waste  Water. 

Total  Losses. 

Not  Deter, 
mined. 

"" 

. 

'■' 

■ 

■• 

' 

' 

' 

. 

1 

:M- 


SEASON 

OF 

LOSSES  IN  THE 

Pfttes. 

Sucrose  %  Bebts 

Fresh  Cossettes. 

Diffusion  juice. 

Diffusion  Losses,  by 
Differeijce. 

• 

■; 

i 

) 

1 

1 

• 

320 


DIFFUSION. 


IN  THE  COSSKTTES,  LOSSES,  ETC. 

Dates. 

Exhausted 
Cossettes. 

Waste  Water. 

Total  Losses. 

Not  Derer- 
mined. 

' 

' 

.         i 

■ 

■' 

■ 

■ 

; 

. 

mm*.' 

SEASOl 

^  OF 

.... 

ANALYSES  OF 

Sucr»se 
%  in  the 
j      Beets. 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

Sucrose. 

Sucrose  %  j    Reducing 
tseets.             Sugar. 

j 

i 

"" 

.,, 

1     • 

« 

'    ; 

i  : 

i  * 

'    i 

: 

1 

, 

i 

, 

* 

"   '    ■ 

1 

BEETS  AND  DIFFUSION-JUICE. 

DiFFDSION-JUICK. 

Dates. 

Ash. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sugar. 

Coefflcient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

1 

^ 

^, 

^ 

_. 

m 

SEASO> 

r  OF 

ANALYSES  OF 

i 

1     Sucrose 
1    %  in  the 
Beets. 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6, 

%             Suciose  % 
Sucrose.         Beets. 

Reducing 
Sugar. 

i 

: 

i 

, 

i 

" :  .     '                          ^ 

' 

; 

' 

1 

m- 

BEETS  AND  DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


IJiFFDSION-JUICE. 

Dates. 

A. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sugar. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient . 

J 

„                   1 

i 

' 

• 

i 

1 

1 

i 

1 

► 

; 

KiSh 


SEA.SON  OF 


ANALYSES 


Sucrose 
%  in  the 
Beets. 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
BaumS. 

Sucrose. 

Sucrose  ^ 
Beets. 

Reducing 
Sugar. 

, 

, 

, 

1 

• 

'- 

1 

1, 

.226. 


BEETS  AND  DIFFUSION-JUICE. 

DlFrCSION-JUICB. 

Dates. 

Ak 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sugar. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient, 

" 

I 

1 

. ■ 

"! 

^ 

1 

!        ■ 

1 

j 

. 

„ 

■  V-      - 

. 

1, 

. 

. 

.' 

SEASON  OF 


ANALYSES  OF 


1 

Sucrose 
%  in  the 
Beets. 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

Sucrose. 

1           % 
Sucrose  %  \    Reducing 
Beets.      1      sugar.^ 

1 

' 

' 

BEETS  AND  DIFFUSION-JUICE. 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

Ash. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sugar. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

; 

1 

;, 

. 

^• 

^ 


FEASON  OF 


ANALYSES  OF 


1 

Diffusion-juice. 

Dates. 

%  in  the 
Beets. 

Brix  or 
Bauiu6. 

Sucrose. 

^p^JTtf^       Reducing 
ueets.            Sugar. 

• 

1 

] 

■ 

. 

;         " 

: 

'■ 

' 

— 

' 

s                   1 

I 

BEETS 

AND  DIFFUSION-JUICE. 

DlKFDSION-JUICE. 

Dates. 

Ak 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sugar. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient, 

■ 

1 

' 

[ 

. 1 

1 

331 


SEA  SO] 

fl  OF 

T^TFFTTST 

ON-JUIOE. 

1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation. 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Lime 

used, 
%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

ity  after 
Sulphur- 
ing. 

1 

. 

-' 

i 

8b: 


SIRUPS. 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coefficieut 
of  Purity. 

■» 

, 

, 

[ 

f 

- 

SEASON  OF DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation, 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Lime 

used, 
%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

ity  after 
Sulphur- 
ing, 

— •""^■^ 

.1 

I 

' 

. 

bbii 


SIRUPS. 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
6aum6. 

Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coeffieieut 
of  Purity. 

-» 

. 



SEASON  OF DIFFUSION- JUICE. 


1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation. 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Lirre. 

Lime          Alkalinity, 
used,        Grams  Lime 
%  Beets.         per  Litre. 

ity  after 
Sulphur- 
ing. 

1 

■,. 

i 

^ 

J2i. 


SIRUPS. 


Dates. 

i 

Brix  or 
BaumS. 

% 
Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

1 

• 

f 

• 

.235. 


SEASON  OF. 


DIFFUSION-JUICE. 


1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation. 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

|ity  after 
Sulphur- 
1     ing- 

i 

} 

|l 

■  i             *    ■ 

'l 

i 

i 

j 

.; 

^ 

i 

i 

i 

i: 

1    . 
1 

! 

' 

j 

1 

1 

ML 


SIRUPS. 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

IBP 


SEASON  OF 

DIFFUSION-JUICE. 

1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation. 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

ity  after 
Sulphur- 
ing. 

., 

; 

4 

SIRUPS. 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

SEASON  OF 

DIFFUSION-JUICE, 

1st  Carbonatation. 

2d  Carbonatation. 

Alkalin- 

Dates. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Lime 

used, 

%  Beets. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

ity  after 
Sulphur- 
ing. 

j 

• 

! 

1 

' 

(              1 

^ 

• 

' 

34C 


SIRUPS. 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baume, 

% 
Sucrose. 

Alkalinity. 

Grams  Lime 

per  Litre. 

Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

. 

^ 

' 

■ 

. 

1 
j 

1 

m 

SEASON  OF. 


FIRST 


Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baura6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Raffinose, 

1 

» 

842 


MA5SECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

; 

• 

, 

848 


SEASON  OF. 


FIRST 


Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

^  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflno.se. 

\ 

« 

! 

_      -1           ^ 

344 


MASSECUITES. 


JC  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

L 

• 

. 

' 

, 

! 

" 

, 

f>4.n 

. I 

SEASON  OF. 


FIRST 


Dates. 

Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Dryin*. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Haffinose. 

J 

: 

. 

■ 

■  !    ■            ! 

1 
1 

1 

- 

348 


MASSECUITES. 


^  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

; 

• 

. 

< 

■ 

■ 

JUo 

J 

SEASON  OF. 


FIRST 


Dates. 

Apparent 
Biix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafianose, 

' 

• 

r 

• 

860                                               1 

1 

MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  ReduciDj 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

>  Matter  no 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

, 

•  # 

8di 

, J 

SEASO^ 

OF  

.... 

SECOND 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Raffluose. 

> 

t 

f 

1 

! 

i 

b 

1 

, 

, 

I 

35d 

MASSECUITES 


^^'--'IfiT^ 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient 

\' 

1. 

i 

;■• 

•     !i 

' 

% 

SEASON 

OF  

... 

SECOND 

Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

5f  Raffinose. 

■ 

■ 

( 

i 

. 

" 

' 

854 


MASSECUITES. 


***%^g*at,°'' 

j<  Orgranic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coeffldi^nt 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

■  ( 

■ 

' 

865 


SEASON 

OF 

SECOND 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying, 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose. 

]                i 

; 

i 

■ 

U    

• 

356 


MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

1 

i 

SEASON   OF 


SECOND 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
BaumS. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  RafflnoBe. 

' 

^ 


MASSECUITES. 


<  Ash.  ^  Reducing 
'               Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

[ 

. 

; 

• 

SEASON   OF 


SECONIv 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose. 

'       • 

MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash.  ^  Reducing 
^            '    Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

. 

. 

m 


SEASON  OF. 


THIRD 


Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose, 

' 

_, 

. 

. 

'' 

' 

. 

i 

1 

JIASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter   not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

1 

' 

333:                                                              1 

SEASON  OF. 


THIRD 


Dates. 

Apparent 
Brixor 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Eafflnose, 

i 

; 

! 

i 

_       __       __ 

i 

i 

- 

J 

• 

ML 


MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity, 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

— 

. 

II 

SEASON 

OF 

THIRD 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
1    Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Eafflnose, 



. 

36G 


MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars, 

%  Orsranic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefflcieut 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity, 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

' 

. 

» 

: 

867                                                    1 

SEASON  9W. 


THIRD 


HAtes. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baumfi. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct), 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Eafflnose, 

i 

:> 

1 

4 

&()8 


MASSECUITES. 


Jf  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Tn,6 
Coefficieflf 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient, 

, 

399 


SEASON  OF. 


THIRD 


Dates. 

Brix  or 
Baura6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose, 

'• 

' 

I- 

■ 

^70                                                 1 

1 

MASSECUITES. 


%  Ash. 

%  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

^        

. 

■■ 

871                                                       II 

1 

M 

SEASON 

OF  

.... 

MOLASSES. 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose, 

1 

I 

ii 

" 

1 

■ 

1 

• 



MOLASSES. 


^  Ash.  ^  Reducing 
Sugars. 

%  Orgranic 

»  Matter  nol 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 

.  Coefficient 

of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

[ 

' 

S7S 


SEASON   OF 


MOLASSES. 


Dates. 

Baumg. 

%  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying, 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose. 

■ 

1         ; 

1 

j 

i 

1 
1 

1          , 

L. 

874 


MOLASSES. 


'^^"■ffutr^ 

%  Orp:anic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

'                 , 

' 

' 

■ 

■ 

875 


J                 SEASON   OF  

.... 

MOLASSES. 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6. 

;     %  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

*^c^     *Ra««o,e. 

\ 

1 

ttOLASSES. 


<  Ash.   ^  Reducing 
*  ^     •  !    Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter   not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

' 

877 


SEASON 

OF 

.... 

MOLASSES. 

Dates. 

Apparent 
Brix  or 
Baum6, 

a  Total 
Solids  by 
Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

%  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

t  Kaffinose. 

J5S_ 


MOLASSES. 


i 

%  Organic 

AJatter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

1 

I 

• 

■ 

' 

m. 


SEASON    OF 


MOLASSES. 


Dates. 

Apparent        %  Total 
Brix  or        Solids  bj- 
Baum6.     j     Drying. 

%  Sucrose 
(Direct). 

i  Sucrose 
(Clerget). 

%  Rafflnose. 

• 

f 

— 

■ 

MOLASSES. 

%  Ash.  ^  Reducing 
^  ^*  ■       Sugars. 

%  Organic 

Matter  not 

Sucrose. 

Apparent 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

True 
Coefficient 
of  Purity. 

Saline 
Coefficient. 

1 

' 

' 

_ 

891                                       -.     .         1 

1 

J 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 

N03. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

i 

■ 

' 

1 

1 
1 

1 

'' 

■ 

SEASON  OF  . 

FIRST  SUGAR 

Lot 
Nds. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

,' 

' 

ae 

)8 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot      Polar- 
Nos.  izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

.  i 

1 

, 

1 

^ 

1 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAtt. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

■ 

B 

■ 

I 

1 

■ 

K 

\ 

■ 

■ 

■ 

B 

' 



as 

R 

^ 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

: 

1 

I 

1 

386 


SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar.  ; 

Lot      Polar- 
Nos.   izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

' 

387 

SEAS 

ON  OP.. 

FIRST  RTTdAT?      H 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

<                        ; :               .: 

,. 

. 

jm. 


SEASON  OF 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

izations     Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

1   Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

■ 

. 



99 

n 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar-      _        ,      -,  „ 
izations.     Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

t 

! 

1 

i 

'                   r 

j 

. 

'               1 

8M 

1 

w 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

' 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos\ 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

L 

1 

■ 

' 

• 

8»8 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR 

Lot 
Kos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

j 

a 

• 

1 

394 


SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

"" 

,.    . 

1 

1 

1 

' 

1 

i 

1 

! 

1 

' 

' 

• 

1 

395 

1 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

' 

1 

!' 

SEASON  OF.. 

FIEST  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

, 

j         .      .    • 

397 


SEASON  OF.. 

FIRST  SUGAlt. 

Lot 
Nos. 

izations.     Pounds  of  Sugar. 

i 

Lot 

Nos. 

1 

i^Sons.i    Pounds  of  Sugar. 

! 

^ 

L 

i 

398 


SEASON  OP.. 



FIRST  SUGAR 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar, 

• 

. 

i 

;  j 

!| 

r-           1 
1 

' 

399 

SEASON  OF 

SECOND  SUGAR. 

Lot 

N08. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Poimds  of 
Sugar. 

• 

, 

I 

j 

.  1 

, 

4m 


SEASON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

• 

m 

> 

u^"^ 

SEAS( 

)N  OF    . 

SECOND  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

■■  ■■  j 

' 

' 

!: 

. 

' 

. 

• 

i 

* 

' 

t 

• 

462 


SEASON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR, 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

• 

• 

'■                  ':            '        \ 

4^S 

SEASON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

1   . 

. 

■? 

■ 

-mr 


SEASON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

' 

f         ^! 

- 

r 

I                                              40. 

1 

Wr 

SEAS 

ON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR    1 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot      Polar- 
Nos.   izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar, 

408 


SEASON  OF  . 

SECOND  SUGAR 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of 
Sugar. 

» 

. 

1 

' 

f 

• 

f 

■ 

4m 


SEAS 

ON  OF.. 

..     TWTRn     STiaA-p                          TnTAT.    GTT^A-D 

^  ■.-■-•-«                                       ^  '*'  **'*     VV^'''*-'-*, 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Dates. 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds, 

1 

i 

1 

1 

1 

m 


eEAS( 

3N   OF.. 

THIRD  SU 

aAR.                TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Dates. 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds. 

• 

• 

i         •      ■■ 

409 


SEASON  OF.. 

THIRD   SUGAR. 

TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Dates. 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds. 

1            1 

!        1 

i          li 

1     1! 

■ 

i      li 

i    ! 

1    '1 

. 

jL      '    '  «;< 

. 

1 ■    — 

^ 

: 

410 


SEASON  OF.. 

THIRD   SUGAR. 

TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 

1  Dates. 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds. 

I 

1 

i 

[' 

, 

\ 

!■ 

r 

i 

S: 

1^ 

V 

i 

\ 

! 

. 

t 

i 

• 

! 

i 

i      1 

} 

1           ! 

i 

^ 

K 

' 

'■ 

^ 

I 

i 

I   , 

411 


SEAS 

ON  OF. 

THTRn    ST 

JGAR.                TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar, 

Dates 

1 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds. 

• 

J 

. 

: 

, 

412 


SEAS 

SON  OF. 

THIRD  SUGAR. 

TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 

Nos. 

!  Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

1 
Dates 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pounds. 

1 



! 

"         1                                       ' 

] 

'"V 

1     • 

■ 

— 

\   ■        ^t 

1 

t 

i 

41S 


SEAS 

ON  OF. 

THTT?r>    RT 

IGAR.         TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Dates 

Total  Sugar  to  Date. 
Pouuds. 

i 

I 

' 

414 


3EAS0N  OF.. 

.. THIRD   SUGAR. 

TOTAL  SUGAR. 

Lot 
Nos. 

Polar- 
izations. 

Pounds  of  Sugar. 

Dates. 

Total  Sugar  to  Date* 
Pounds. 

* 

. 

» 

• 

1 

! 

1 

)t 

' 

1 

t 

1 

4^1 


SEASON  OF 

LIME-KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
4cid,    COa. 

<-»,^„^v,    r\     Carbonic 
Oxygen,  0.  oxide,  CO. 

%                    ^ 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ- 
ence.) 
% 

« 

r    " 

- 

~m 


SEASON  OF 

LIME-KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   CO,. 

Oxygen,  O. 

Carbonic 
Oxide,  CO. 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By   diflfer- 
enee.) 
% 

j 

' 

• 

, 

JUL 


SEASON  OF. 

LIME-KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,    COa. 

1 
^              ^  1   Carbonic 
Oxygen,  0.  oxide,   CO, 

^          1           % 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By   differ 
ence.) 

j 

1. 

i 

i 

"1 

; 

1 

' 

. 

■ 

■ 

{ 

118 


SEASON  OF....... 

LIME-KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   COa. 

Oxyg|.,  0.  oSlSa^rCO. 
*         1          * 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ- 
ence.) 

' 

1 

; 

I 

r 
I 

r. 

j 

.. 

; 

'■ 

! 

iI9 


SEASON  OF 

LIME-KILN   GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   COj. 

Oxygeo,0.oarcS. 

^                   1                    % 

Nitrogen,    N. 
{By  differ- 
ence.) 
% 

^■. 

4M 


SilASO 

N  OF 

LIME.KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,    COj. 

Oxygen,  0. 

Carbonic 
Oxide,  CO. 

% 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ- 
ence.) 
% 

,; 

_j 

1                  ^ 

' 

1 

421 

SEASON  OF, 


LIME-KILN  GASEV 


Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   CO,. 

1 
_.               ^  (   Carbonic 
Oxygen,  0.  oxide,  CO. 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ- 
ence.) 

. 

. 

'■ 

; 

- 

^' 

■ 

. 

■  ■  ■  '    ■■■ 
i 

4^' 


SEASON   OF 



LIME.KILN   GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic! 
Acid,    COa. 

Oxygen,  o\^^^^ 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ 
ence.) 

% 

■. 

, 

; 

. 

' 

r 

; 

I 

1 

:. 

1 

■ 

42S 

SEASO 

N  OF 

LIME-KILN  GASES 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   CO,. 

Oxygen,  0. 

Carbonic 
Oxide,  CO. 

% 

Nitrogen.    N. 
(By  diflfer- 
ence.) 

'     ■- 

1 , 

ML 


SEASON  OF 

LIME-KILN  GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   CO,. 

Oxyge..0.oS;,rcS. 

*         1         * 

Nitrogen.    N. 
{Hy  differ 
euue.) 

• 

' 

, 

J, 

.' 

( 

■ 

! 

1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

I                             m 

SEASON  OF 



LIME-KILN   GASES. 

Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,   CO,. 

0.yge».O.oSrrca 

*            * 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ 
euce.) 

:| 

. 

" 

1 

— 

' 

-m 


SEASON  OF. 


LIME-KILN   GASES. 


Dates. 

Carbonic 
Acid,    COj. 

1 

^              _  1   Carbonic 

Oxygen,  O.  Oxide,  CO. 

*                   % 

Nitrogen,    N. 
(By  differ- 
ence.) 

1 

i 

if—  ■     ■ 

K 

w 

_ 

1 

m 

SUMMARY 


OF 


YIELD  AJSTD  LOSSES. 


1 

IS 

h  go 

B 

coo 

pi 

^(^ 

i 

f   ? 

1 

,11 

» 

» 

OS 

§ 
1 

1 

1 
1 

1 

430 


workod Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice ••       

First  massecuite,  total  weight ••       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses ••       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture ««       «•       «»    , 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes **    .  ••       ••    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters ••      ••       ••    . 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 

sion-battery •«       ••       u    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 


Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 
sirup •♦ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 
from  sirup  to  first  massecuite ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 
from  sirup  to  molasses *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.  ** 
"  *'  "  the  filter  press  cake...  " 
"        "    "  the  evaporation " 

Other  losses,  sucrose ** 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

**         "         unaccounted  for 

431 


lis 

IP 

1 

wo 

p 

«« 

1^1 

It 

i 

' 

' 

ll 

1 

' 

' 

% 

° 

09 

1 
1 

1 

1 

1 

5 

^ 

482 


Beets  worked Tons .... 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds. 

Juice  extracted ** 

Sucrose  in  the  juice.... 

First  massecuite,  total  weight 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 
and  molasses  

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 
and  molasses Percent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 
in  manufacture •'       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the  exhausted  cos* 
settes «       ««       M    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **       '*       *•    . 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu« 

sion-battery **       ••       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence   M         M         M     ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup «       «       M    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite **       "       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses  «•       «       •«    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.  **  *•  ••  . 
*•        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       ••       ••    , 

•*        "    "  the  evaporation •*       **       ••    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose „.      ♦»       ••       ••    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

*'         **         unaccounted  for 

433 


ill 

Hi 

IP 

11^ 

ll 

til 

• 

O 

^ 

Sugar  and 
Molasses. 

1 

IX 

1 

1 

i 

^ 

1 

) 

^ 

1 
1 

CO 

1 

1 

i 

434 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Founds 

Juice  extracted '*       

Sucrose  in  the  juice "       

First  massecuite,  total  weight **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 
and  molasses ••       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

andmolasses Percent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture.. "       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  exhausted   cos* 

settes *♦       «*       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters "      *•      "    , 

"         **    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion-battery   *•      ••       *•    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence   «          M          tt      ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup "       «•       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite *'       **       ••    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses «*       *»       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.  **  **  *•  . 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       **       "    , 

'•        "    "  the  evaporation ♦*       ••       "    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose **       «*       ••    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

"  **         unaccounted  for 

435 


Si 

Sucrose 

per  cent 

Beets. 



1 

III 

IF 

• 

1^^ 

1^^ 

^ 

h 

II 

CO 

iX 

S 

) 

) 

1 

' 

1 

00 

1 

1 

1 

436 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets^ Pounds 

Juice  extracted '*       

Sucrose  in  the  juice **        

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  Per  cent  beets . 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 


t«  •»  M 


Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **      ** 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion-battery       •*       ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 


Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup "       «»       " 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 
from  sirup  to  first  massecuite .......      '•      *•       *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses ••       *•       •* 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      "       **       ** 
•♦        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       "       •» 

"        "    "  the  evaporation **      *•       •* 

Other  losses,  sucrose **       ••       *• 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

losses "      »•       «« 

Total  sucrose    ticcounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses.      "       **       *• 

»*         **         unaccounted  for ♦•       *»       •« 

437 


1 

IP 

H4 

MO 

- 

P 

Ill 

11 

1(2 

^ 

1 

§2 
"^  to 

i 

0 

) 

) 

) 

i 

1 

1 
1 

1 

438 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beeta Pounds 

Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice **       

First  massecuite,  total  weight *'       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

andmolasses Percent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes "    .  *•       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **      **       '•    . 

"         ••    by  inversion  in  the  diffu> 

sion-battery mm       m    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence         u       u       u    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

simp u       «       M 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite.......      *•       ••       »•    _ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses **       «•       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  ovei'flows  and  wastage.      **       **       •*    , 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...     *•       ••       «*    . 

"        "    "  the  evaporation •*      ••       ••    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose *•       ••       *•    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses. 

**  *♦         unaccounted  for 


439 


hi 

III 

111 

ooo 

'1 

• 

=  .-• 

Ill 

3 

^ 

1 

1 

) 

u 
a 

I 

IX. 

) 

" 

1 

1 

1 

1 

Eh 

440 


worked Tons. ... 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Founds. 


Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice *•       

First  massecuite,  total  weight **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture **       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes '. 44       44       u    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **      4*44^ 

"         ••    by  inversion  in  the  diffu> 

sionbattery »4       44       «    _ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  diflPer- 

ence **       u       u    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup •♦       ••       •«    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite. .. **       •*       **    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses «*       "       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.     44       u       44    ^ 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      *•       •♦       ••    , 

'♦        "    •' the  evaporation "       *•       ••    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose ••       ••       ••    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

**  "         unaccounted  for 

441 


Si 

U  fl  3 

5S" 

ill 
11^ 

11^ 
M 

COO 

if 

31 

jl 

^ 

^ 

4 

H 

1 

" 

I 

0 

"5 

" 

CD 

g 
1 

1 

1 

1 

1 

i 

442 


worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted '*       

Sucrose  in  the  juice **       

First  massecuite,  total  weight **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

andmolasses Per  cent  beets . 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the  exhausted   cos- 

settes "       ♦•       •'    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters "      "       "    . 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu* 

sion  battery "       ••       •*    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence        u       u       w 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup "       «       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite. ., *•       •*       *•    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses «•       «♦       •♦    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      "       **       •*    , 
"         "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       **       *•    . 

"        "    "  the  evaporation •*      ♦*       ♦*    . 

Other  losses,  sucrose •♦       "       «    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

**  "         unaccounted  for 

443 


ill 

li4 

wo 

■»3 

ill 

4J 

11 

1^ 

1 

1 

" 

' 

5 

X 
^ 

" 

n 

1 

1 

1 

444 


Beetsworked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice *'       

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  **       ........ 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture *'       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes *»       "       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **      **       **    . 

"         •*    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion-battery       "       •*       *•    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence        *♦       *•       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup **       ••       •• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite. ..  ...      '*       *•       *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses •*       *♦       *•    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      **       **       "    , 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      '*       **       "    , 

"        "    "  the  evaporation •*       **       ••    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose **       •*       **    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

**         *'         unaccounted  for 

445 


IP 

i 

i 

C  OD'O 

J 

^ 

1 

1 

a 

) 

J 

, 

1 

1 

so 

-a 
§ 

1 

1 

446 


Beet  s  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Founds 

Juice  extracted **        

Sucrose  in  the  juice **        ........ 

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses ". Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture **       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes , a       M       .»    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **       **       **    , 

"         •'    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion-battery   *t       M       u 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence   a       M       tt 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup , **       "       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite ... *•       ••       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

f  I'om  sirup  to  molasses *•       **       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.  **       "       **    , 

"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...  **       **       "    , 

*♦        "    "  the  evaporation *•       ••       **    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose **       •*       *•    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  in  the 

losses "       ♦•       *•    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses.  "       **       **    , 

**          •*         unaccounted  for ♦»       "       *♦    , 


447 


lis 

1 

1 
i 

ill 

02  O 

1 
1 

1.1 

II 

r 

^ 

P^ 

6 

il 

) 

g 
cZ 

S 

1 

> 

0 

1 

CO 
1 

1 

1 

448 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted *'       

Sucrose  in  the  juice "        

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  •• 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  Per  cent  beets . 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the  exhausted   cos- 


Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters '* 

"         *'    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion battery •* 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence         •• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup " 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 
from  sirup  to  first  massecuite ......      ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses  *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      " 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake ...      " 

"        "    •*  the  evaporation " 

Other  losses,  sucrose *» 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  In  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

**         **         unaccounted  for 

449 


i|l 

1 

1 

Sucrose 

per  cent 

Beets. 

§3^ 

MO 

1 

If 

°     .CO 

1"^ 

1 

If 

1.2 

^ 

1 

Q    . 

il 

0 

) 

I 

) 

1 

' 

1 
1 

t» 

a 
1 

E- 

450 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted '*       

Sucrose  in  the  juice "       

First  massecuite,  total  weight  "       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  "       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses ; Per  cent  beets . 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes "       «*       ••    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters "      **       "    . 

"         ♦•    by  inversion  in  the  diflfu- 

sion-battery *•       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence        "       ♦*       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup "       "       •»    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite. . . "       "       "    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses •'       •'       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      *•       "       "    . 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       '•       ••    , 

"        "    "  the  evaporation ••       *♦       "    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose '*       "       «*    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

losses "      ••       ♦*    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses.      '*      **       *♦    . 

"         **        unaccounted  for "      "       "    . 

451 


S  1 


I 

Sucrose 

per  cent 

Beets. 

Sucrose  per 

ton  of  Beets. 

Pounds. 

<3  u' 

s  wo 

If 

^ 

® 

8 

! 

a 

' 

1 

1 

s 

a 

S 

" 

1 

CO 

S 

a 

1 

1 

452 


Per  cent  beets. 


worked  Tons.  . 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted '• 

Sucrose  iu  the  juice *' 

First  massecuite,  total  weight  ** 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses  '* 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture " 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes ^ ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters " 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diflfu- 

sion -battery *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 

ence •  •• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite ... ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses  ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage,      ** 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake .. .      " 

"*        "    "  the  evaporation ** 

Other  losses,  sucrose " 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose   accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses. 

*•         ••         unaccounted  for 


453 


Ill 

. 

iP 

II 

O          00 

? 

^ 

1 

C5 

Q     . 

i 

g 
^ 

s 

1 

g 

jZ 

S 

0 

i 

1 

S 

o 

1 

1 

n 

a 

a 

1 

"a 

454 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice "       

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent  beets . 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       "       •*    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  exhausted  cos- 

settes "       *•       "    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters '*       *•       *•    . 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion battery **       **       ••    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  diflfer- 

ence «       "       «*    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup ••       *»       »•    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite **       "       »•    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses , .      «•       ••       *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      '•       "       " 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      "       '*       ••    , 

"        "    "  the  evaporation "       "       "    . 

Other  losses,  sucrose "       •*       «♦    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses. 

'*  "         unaccounted  for 


455 


. 

Sucrose 

per  cent 

Beets. 

m 

Is 

t.4 

fli 

IS 

^ 

1 

1 

EX 

3 

1 

i 

1 

) 

b 

g 
1 

^ 

^ 

) 

00 

c 

1 

1 

o 

1 

456 


worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted *'■      

Sucrose  in  the  juice "       

First  massecuite,  total  weight  *'       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture **       **       *    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the   exhausted   cos- 

settes "       •*       •♦    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters "       **       *•    . 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion battery **       u       u    ^ 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence         u       tt       « 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup 44       u       «• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite **       ••       ••    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses «*       *•       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      *•       **       •*    , 
"        "    *'  the  filter  press  cake...      **       ♦♦       •*    . 

"        "    "  the  evaporation "       *•       ••    , 

Other  losses,  sucrose ••       •♦       «    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses. 

**         *•         unaccounted  for 


457 


5  fl  3 

wo 

ill 

Total  weight. 
Pounds. 

1 

4 

Sugar  and 
Molasses. 

t. 

9m 

) 

g 
a 

S 

, 

" 

BO 

i 
1 

1 

1 

1 

. 

458 


Beets  worked Tons.  . . 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds. 

Juice  extracted *' 

Sucrose  in  the  juice *' 

First  massecuite,  total  weight  " 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugarft 

and  molasses  ** 

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture "       ** 

Sucrose  lost   in  the  exhausted   cos- 

settes "       ♦* 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters '*       ** 

"         "    by  inversion  in  the  diflfu- 

sion  battery ••       " 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ- 
ence         "       ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

simp **       *• 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite **       ** 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  IT olasses «•       «♦ 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage. 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake.., 

'•        "    "  the  evaporation *• 

Other  losses,  sucrose 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

losses 

Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 
products  and  losses. 

'*         "         unaccounted  for 

459 


beets . 


IP 

B 

coo 

|l| 

tl 

o 

il 

a 

1 

> 

g 
^ 
^ 

g 
^ 

s 

c 

a: 

00 

O 
1 

1 

CO 

1 

1 

460 


Beets  worked Tons 

Sucrose  in  the  beets Pounds 

Juice  extracted **       

Sucrose  in  the  juice **       

First  massecuite,  total  weight  **       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses *•       

Sucrose  accounted  for  in  the  sugars 

and  molasses Per  cent  beets. 

Sucrose  to  be  accounted  for  in  losses 

in  manufacture **       **       **    . 

Sucrose  lost   in  the  exhausted  coa- 

settes ♦♦«••». 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  waste  waters **       **       **    . 

"         ♦'    by  inversion  in  the  diffu- 
sion-battery       •*       **       •*    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  diffusion,  by  differ. 

ence «       •«       «. 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration  to 

sirup ♦•       ••       ««    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  first  massecuite .......      '*      *•       •♦    . 

Sucrose  lost  in  the  concentration,  etc., 

from  sirup  to  molasses *♦       *•       ••    , 

Sucrose  lost  in  overflows  and  wastage.      "       "       *•    . 
"        "    "  the  filter  press  cake...      '*       **       *•    , 

•*        "    "  the  evaporation '*       ••       *•    . 

Other  losses,  sucrose *•       *•       *«    , 

Total  sucrose    accounted   for  in  the 


Total  sucrose    accounted  for  in  the 

products  and  losses.      "       *•       •• 

*•         *•         unaccounted  for "       »*       •• 

461 


INDEX. 


A. 

PAGE 

Acidity  of  the  Juice 95 

Adjustment  of  the  polariscope 31 

Alcohol,  use  in  preparing  solutions  for  polarization 31 

Alkalinity  of  juice 96 

due  to  lime  and  caustic  alkalis loi 

Rapid  methods  of  determining 96 

massecuites  and  molasses 113 

Alumina  cream,  Preparation 224 

Aluminic  hydrate,  Preparation 334 

Analysis  of  beet 63 

coke 162 

exhausted  cossettes .<.  124 

filter  press-cake. 120 

gases 142 

lime 159 

limestone 148 

massecuites 102 

and  molasses.  Necessary  determinations iii 

sugars  and  molasses.  Notes 119 

molasses , loa 

residues  from  the  filters i2« 

saccharates 137 

sirup 102 

sugars 118 

sulphur 161 

wash  and  waste-waters 123 

Ash  determination .  * 91 

Normal 91 

Sulphated 91 

Asparagine,  Effect  of  acetic  acid  on  the  rotatory  power 41 

Influence  of  subacetate  of  lead  on  the  rotatory  power. ...    40 

Aspartic  acid,  Optical  activity 41 

Automatic  apparatus  for  density  determinations 54 

recording  apparatus 5 

sampling  of  juices 5«i 

4S3 


464  IKDEX. 


Automatic  zero  burette , ,    85 

Averaging  and  sampling .....••• 43 

B. 

Baldwin's  automatic  scale , , 8 

Baum^  scale. 55 

Beet  analysis 62 

Alcoholic  method  62 

Direct  methods 63 

Indirect  method 71 

Chemical  composition 201 

juice,  Reagents  suggested  for  treating 203 

mothers,  Analysis  179 

Chemical  method  of  analysis 187 

seed 190 

Beets,  Analysis,  in  seed  selection 179 

Distribution  of  the  sugar 177 

Methods  of  removing  samples , 177 

Net  weight 3 

Typical 17s 

Belgian  method  of  measuring  the  juice 7 

Bodenbender's  substance 78 

Bone-black,  Decolorizing  power 140 

Determination  of  the  principal  constituents 141 

for  decolorizing  solutions 222 

Limited  use,  in  sugar  factories 139 

Moisture  determination 140 

Revivification 139 

Test  for  sulphide  of  calcium 140 

Weight  of  a  cubic  foot 139 

Brix  scale 55 

Burette,  Automatic  zero 83 

C. 

Calibration  of  burettes,  etc 231,  250 

Capsule  for  weighing 30 

Carbonatation  208 

Carbonated  juice,  Analysis 96 

Carbonic  acid 142 

Simple  apparatus  for  determining 146 

Chimney  gases,  Analysis 145 

Clarification  of  the  juice,  Notes 77 

Clerget's  inversion  method in 

Cochineal  solution 225 

Coefficient  of  organic  matter 127 

purity 126 

of  saccharates 138 


INDEX.  465 


PAGE 

Coefficient  of  Saline 126 

Coefficients,  true  and  apparent 126 

Coke,  Analysis 162 

Determination  of  ash 162 

moisture 162 

sulphur 162 

Continuous  tube,  Pellet 183 

Control  of  sugar-house  work i 

tube  for  polariscopes 34 

Coombs' sampler 51 

Corallin  solution 225 

Cossettes,  exhausted,  Sampling  ' 48 

fresh,  Sampling 48 

Creydt's  formulae  for  sucrose  and  raffinose 107 

Crystallized  sugar,  Dupont's  method 116 

Estimation  of  the  proportion 112 

Kracz' method 114 

Notes  on  the  estimation 117 

Vivien's  method 113 

Cylindro-divider 69 

D. 

Density  determinations  by  dilution  and  spindling 103 

in  the  juice 74 

Notes 55. 

of  massecuites  and  molasses 102 

Dextrose,  Influence  of  lead  salts  on  the  rotary  power 39 

Diffusion 207 

gas  in  the  battery 200 

juice.  Precipitate  formed  on  heating 198 

losses,  by  difference 16 

Dilution,  Actual 127 

Apparent 127 

Direct  methods  of  beet  analysis,  Notes 69 

Division  of  the  season  into  periods 13 

Doolittle  viscosimeter 130 

Double  dilution  method,  Scheibler 36 

Dupont's  method  for  crystallized  sugar...  ,, 116 

E. 

Error  due  to  volume  of  the  lead  precipitate 34 

Evaporation,  Loss  of  sucrose  17 

Exhausted  cossettes.  Analysis 124 

Loss  of  sucrose 14 

Quantity,  produced 14 

Exponent  of  purity 126 

Extraction  apparatus , 6? 


466  INDEX 


rACB 

P. 

Fehling's  solution 916 

Fermentation  199 

Acetic 199 

Lactic 199 

Mucous 199 

Putrid 199 

Vinous  or  alcoholic  199 

Viscous  199 

Filtering  apparatus 30 

Filter  press-cake ...  120 

Loss  of  sucrose 17 

Filter-pressing,  Difficulties 210 

••  Frog  spawn" , 199 

G. 

Gas  analysis 142 

Carbonic  acid  — 145,  246 

Nitrogen 145 

Oxygen 145 

German  official  method  for  sucrose  and  raflinose 106 

Glucose  coefficient 126 

per  icx)  sue .ose 126 

Glutamic  acid,  Influence  of  subacetate  of  lead  on  the  rotatory  power.  41 

Glycerine  method  for  crystallized  sugar 114 

Gray  juice 208 

sugar 215 

H. 

Half-shadow  polariscope 19 

Hanriot's  apparatus 179 

Horsin-Deon's  recording'apparatus 5 

sampler 53 

Hydrochloric  acid.  Standard 218 

Hydrometers 56 

Method  of  reading 58 

I. 

Invert  sugar,  Influence  of  some  substances  on  the  rotatory  power  ...  40 

subacetate  of  lead  on  the  rotatory  power...  40 

solution 221 

J. 

Juice,  Acidity  determination 95 

Alkalinity 96 

Automatic  sampling , ,,.,..,...,,*...,,....* 50 


INDEX.  467 


PAGB 

Juice,  Gray 208 

Measurement 5 

K. 

Kaiser-Sachs  modification  of  Pellet's  aqueous  method 68 

Kjeldahl's  method  for  nitrogen 92 

Knorr's  apparatus  for  carbonic  acid 153 

extraction  apparatus 61 

Kracz'  apparatus  for  determining  crystallized  sugar 114 

method  for  determing  crystallized  sugar 114 

L. 

Lamps  for  polariscopic  work 27 

Laurent  polariscope 23 

Lead  precipitate,  Influence,  on  polarizations 35 

Scheibler  double  dilution  method 36 

Levulose,  Influence  of  certain  substances  on  the  rotatory  power. ....    40 

Lime,  Analysis 139 

Determination  of  unbumed  and  slaked 159 

Free  and  combined,  in  the  juice loi 

Lime-kiln 21X 

gas,  Analysis 143 

Limestone,  Analysis 148 

Determination  of  calcium 151 

carbonic  acid 152 

clay 148 

iron  and  alumina .  150 

magnesium 152 

moisture 148 

organic  matter 148 

sand 148 

soluble  silica 148 

sulphuric  acid 156 

total  silica 149 

Limestones,  Notes  on  the  analysis 156 

Sundstrom's  method  of  analysis 157 

Table  of  analyses 213 

Lindeboom's  sound 178 

Lindet's  inversion  method  108 

Litmus  paper 224 

solution 224 

Losses,  Estimation 13 

Lubricating  oils,  Purity  tests 165 

Tests  applied 164 

M. 

Malic  acid ■ 4< 

Marc  determination.  Pellet's  method 128 


468  INDEX. 


PAGB 

Marc  determination,  von  Lippmann's  method 128 

Massecuite 215 

Alkalinity 112 

Analysis  102,  iii 

Fermentation .  .  200 

Measurement  and  weight 11,12 

Measurement  of  the  sirup , , .      g 

Meissi  and  Hiller's  factors  for  invert  sugar 83 

Melassigenic  salts 201 

Mills 69 

Moisture,  Determination,  in  filter  press-cake 120 

in  massecuites  and  molasses,  by  drying 104 

Molasses,  Alkalinity 112 

Analysis 102,  111 

Calorific  value 198 

Spontaneous  combustion 198 

MufHe  for  incinerations 91 

N. 

Nessler's  solution 225 

Net  weight  of  the  beets 3 

Nitrogen  determination 92 

Total  and  albuminoid 92 

Nitrous  oxide  set  free  in  boiling  sugar 197 

Normal  solutions  217 

weight 28 

O. 

Oils,  Purity  tests , 165 

Tests  applied 164 

Optical  methods  of  sugar  analysis 19 

Organic  matter,  Coefficient 127 

Orsat's  apparatus 14a 

Osmosis  process  for  molasses.  Analytical  work  .   135 

Oxalic  acid.  Standard ...  219 

P. 

Parapectine 41 

Pectine.. 41 

Pellet's  aqueous  method,  hot  digestion 65 

continuous  tube  183 

diffusion  method  as  modified  by  Sachs-Le  Docte 181 

instantaneous  aqueous  diffusion  method 67 

method  for  the  alkalinity  of  juices loi 

Permanganate  of  potassium,  Decinormal 220 

Phenacetoline  solution 225 

Phenolphthalein  solution .,..♦ — 224 


INDEX.  469 


PAGB 

Polariscope 19 

Adjustment 31 

Control  tube 34 

Double  compensating 21 

Enlarged  scale 184 

Half-shadow ig 

lamps 27 

Laurent 23 

manipulation 26 

room 33 

Triple-field 23 

Polariscopes,  General  remarks 26 

Polariscopic  scale — —  28 

Reading 29 

work,  Notes 32 

Polarization,  Preparation  of  solutions  30 

Preservation  of  samples  49 

Proportional  value 127 

Pulp-press 72 

Pure  sugar,  Preparation 222 

Pyknometers , 60 

Quotient  of  purity. 126 

R. 

Raffinose  and  sucrose  in  presence  of  reducing  sugars no 

Inversion  method ic6 

Lindet's  inversion  method 108 

Influence  of  subacetate  of  lead  on  the  rotary  power 40 

Precipitation,  by  highly  basic  subacetate  of  lead 40 

Rasp,  Boring 46,178 

Neveu  and  Aubin 70 

■  Pellet  and  Lomont ^ 65 

Rasps 69 

Reagents,  Special 216 

Recording  apparatus 5 

Reducing  sugars,  Determination,  by  gravimetric  methods 78 

in  the  beet 68 

Notes 90 

Gravimetric  method,  using  Soldaini's  solution 83 

in  beet  products 78 

Sidersky 's  method 88 

Violette's  method 84 

Volumetric  methods 84 

permanganate  method 89 

Regulator  for  use  in  electrolytic  deposition  of  copper  8g 


470  IN^DEX. 


FACE 

Residues  from  the  mechanical  filters,  Analysis 122 

Rosolic  acid  solution 224 

S. 

Saccharates 137 

Sachs-Le  Docte  modification  of  Pellet's  metho^ 68,  181 

Sachs'  method  of  determining  the  volume  of  the  lead  precipitate 37 

Saline  coefficient 126 

Sampler,  Automatic.   50 

Sampling  and  averaging 43 

beets  at  the  diif  usion  battery 47 

for  analysis  in  fixing  the  purchase  price ....  ; .    45 

in  the  field 44 

exhausted  cossettes 48 

fresh  cossettes 48 

sirups 49 

sugars 54 

waste-waters 48 

Samples,  Preservation 49 

Scale,  Automatic,  for  weighing  the  beets ". 3 

juice 8 

Scheibler's  direct  method  of  analysis 62 

polarfscope j[^ 

Schroetter's  alkalimeter , 155 

Seed,  Characteristics  of  good 195 

Germination  test 192 

Moisture  determination 191 

Number,  per  pound  or  kilogram 191 

Proportion  of  clean , ....  191 

sampling 190 

selection 174 

General  remarks  174 

testing 190 

Seed-farms,  Personnel  of  the  laboratory 185 

Sirup,  Analysis  102 

Measurement  and  weight ,      9 

Sampling 49 

Soap  method  for  total  calcium  in  the  juice 100 

solution  for  Clark's  test ' 221 

Soldaini's  solution 216 

Soleil-Ventzke-Scheibler  polariscope *. 25 

Soxhlet-Sickel  extraction  apparatus 63 

Soxhlet's  solution 216 

Spindles 56 

Method  of  reading 58 

Stammer's  alcoholic  digestion  method 64 

Subacetate  of  lead 223 

Influence,  on  the  sugars  and  optically  active  non- 
sugars 38 


INDEX.  471 


PAGB 

Sucrose,  a-naptliol  test 197 

and  raffinose  in  the  presence  of  reducing  sugars 110 

Inversion  method 106 

Lindet's  inversion  method 108 

Cobaltous  nitrate  test 197 

Determination,  by  alkaline  copper  solution 42 

in  the  juice 74,75 

presence  of  reducing  sugar,  chemical 

method.  .. 42 

Free  and  combined,  in  filter  press-cake  .. 122 

in  filter  press-cake,  Sidersky's  method 121 

Stammer's  method 120 

the  presence  of  reducing  sugars,  Clerget's  method m 

Influence  of  certain  salts  on  the  rotatory  power 38 

Loss,  in  the  evaporation 17 

exhausted  cossettes 14 

filter  press-cake 17 

vacuum  pan 17 

waste-water 14 

pipette 74 

Total,  in  filter  press-cake 120 

Sugar,  Analysis 118 

Optical  methods 19 

beets,  see  beets. 

Granulation 214 

Gray 215 

Sampling  54 

weights 13 

Sugar- house  control x 

Basis 2 

Remarks — i 

notes 207 

Sulphur,  Analysis 161 

Sulphuric  acid 219 

for  control  of  the  carbonatation , 219 

Sulphuring 210 

T. 

Tare,  Determination 3 

Testing  a  burette ....'. 231 

Tint  polariscope 25 

Total  calcium  in  the  juice,  Fradiss' method 100 

Gravimetric  method 99 

Soap  method 100 

solids.  Approximate  determination,  Weisberg's  method 104 

by  drying  93 

in  a  vacuum  oven 94 

Carr-Sanborn  method 94 


472  INDEX. 


PAGE 

Total  solids,   in  massecuites  and  molasses,  by  drying to 

Transition  tint  polariscope 25 

Triple-field  polariscope 22 

Turmeric  paper 234 

V. 

Vacuum  drying  oven 94 

Violette''s  solution ...  217 

Viscosiraeter,  Eng^ler's 133 

Flow 132 

Viscosity  of  sirups,  etc  ...     130 

Vivien's  apparatus  for  determination  of  the  crystallized  sugar 113 

control  tube  for  use  in  the  carbonatation 98 

W. 

Waste- waters,  Sampling 48 

Water,  Analysis 167 

Collection  of  samples 167 

Nitrogen  of  nitrates 168 

Total  solids  , i«8 

Determination  of  chlorine 169 

hardness 169 

Permanent  hardness 171 

Purification 167,  171 

suitable  for  sugar  manufacture 167 

Wash  and  waste.  Analysis 123 

Weight  of  the  juice.  Calculation 7 

Weights  and  measures 2 

Weisberg's  method  for  total  solids  in  massecuites 104 

'Vestphal  balance , 58 

Wiley-Knorr  filter-tube 86 

Wiley's  filter-tube 86 


LIST   OF   TABLES  AND   FORMULA. 


CARBOHYDRATES. 

PACK 

Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of  the  Carbohydrates.    Ewell 256 

CALIBRATION   OF  GLASS  VESSELS. 

Apparent  Weight  of  Mohr's  Unit  at    Different  Temperatures    and 

Calibration  of  Vessels  to  Mohr's  Unit... 250 

Testing  a  Burette  :  Tables  and  Descriptive  Matter.    Payne 231 

DENSITY. 

Comparison  of  Degrees  Brix  and  Baume  and  the  Specific  Gravity  of 
Sugar  Solutions.     Stammer — 275 

Corrections  of  Readings  on  the  Brix  Scale  for  Variations  of  Tempera- 
ture from  the  Standard.      Gerlach , 282 

DIFFUSION. 

Volume  of  Juice,  in  Litres,  yielded  in  the  Diffusion  of  100  Kilograms 
of  Beets  of  Various  Densities.     Dupont  246 

EVAPORATION. 

Evaporation  Tables.     Spencer 237,  240 

Formulae  for  Concentration  and  Dilution 239,  241,  247 

Reduction  of  the  Weight  or  Volume  of  a  Sirup  to  that  of  a  Sirup  of  a 
Standard  Density.     Spencer 242 

EXPANSION    AND   CONTRACTION. 

Alteration  of  Glass  Vessels  by  Heat .  250 

Coefficient  of  Expansion  of  Glass,  Cubical   250 

Contraction  of  Invert-sugar  on  Dissolving  in  Water 252 

Rx;).-insion  of  Water.     Kopp   251 

Expansion  of  Water.     Rossetti     251 

Volume  of  Sugar  Solutions  at  Different  Temperatures,    Gerlach 253 

473 


474  LIST  OF   TABLES   AND   FORMULA. 

INVERT-SUGAR   AND   INVERSION. 

PAGE 

Contraction  on  Dissolving  in  Water 252 

Inversion  Formulae.    Stubbs  and  Clements  293 

Table  for  the  Determination  of  less  than  I  per  cent.     Herzfeld 81 

Table  for  the  Determination  of  more  than  i   per  cent.     Meissl  and 
Hiller 83 

MISCELLANEOUS  TABLES  AND  FORMULAE. 

Atomic  Weights.    Clark 229 

Clerget's  Constant.     Wohl  299 

Formulae  for  Concentration  and  Dilution 247 

Freezing  Mixtures.    Walker 268 

Fuels:  Relative  Values.    Haswell 231 

Reciprocals 294 

Values  of  the  Degrees  of  Polariscopic  Scales 299 

Weights  and  Measures,  Customary  and  Metric 230 

Weight  per  Cubic  Foot  and  U.  S.  Gallon  of  Sugar  Solutions 283 

REAGENTS. 
Impurities  and  Strength  of  Reagents 226 

SOLUBILITIES. 

Baryta  in  Sugar  Solutions.    Pellet  and  Sencier 255 

Lime  in  Sugar  Solutions.    Gerlach 252 

Sugar  in  Alcohol.     Schrefeld 254 

Sugar  in  Water.     Flourens 253 

Sugar  in  Water.     Herzfeld 253 

Strontia  in  Sugar  Solutions.    Sidersky 254 

Solubility  of  Certain  Salts  in  Sugar  Solutions.    Jacobsthal 255 

I  STRENGTH  OF  VARIOUS  SOLUTIONS,   ETC. 

Acetate  of  Lead.    Gerlach 274 

Ammonia.    Carius 274 

Calcium  Oxide  in  Milk  of  Lime.    Blatner 271 

Calcium  Oxide  in  Milk  of  Lime.     Mateczek 272 

Hydrochloric  Acid.    Graham-Otto 272 

Nitric  Acid.     Kolb 270 

Potassic  Oxide 273 

Sodium  Oxide 273 

Sulphuric  Acid.    Otto 269 

Sulphuric  Acid  :  Table  for  Dilution.    Anthon 270 

THERMAL  DATA. 

Approximate  Temperature  of  Iron  at  Red  Heat,  etc 249 

Boiling-point  of  Sugar  Solutions.    Gerlach  252 

Comparison  of  Thermometric  Scales 247,  249 

Freezing  Mixtures.    Walker 268 


LIST  OF  TABLES   AKD   FORMULJE. 


TABLES  FOR    CALCULATING  SUCROSE,    REDUCING   SUGAR 
AND   PURITY. 

PAGE 

Approximately  True  Coefficient  of  Purity.    Weisberg 105 

Clerget's  (Constant.    Wohl 299 

Coefficients  of  Purity.     Kottmann 295 

Reciprocals  for  Calculating  Reducing  Sugar 294 

Schmitz'  Table  for  Sucrose 285 

Sucrose  in  Massecuites,  etc.    Coombs 291 

Table  for  less  than  i  per  cent  Invert-sugar.     Herzfeld 81 

Table  for  more  than  i  per  cent  Invert-sugar.     Meissl  and  HiDer 83 

Volume  of  Juice   required  to  give  Polariscopic  Readings  which  are 
Certain  Multiples  of  the  Percentage  of  Sucrose.    Spencer 291 

TOTAL  SOLIDS. 

Approximate  Total  Solids  in  Massecuites,  etc.    Coombs 291 

Coefficients  for  Use  in  Determining  the  Approximately  True  Total 
Solids.    Weisberg i«S 

WATER  ANALYSIS. 
Table  for  the  Calculation  of  the  Hardness  of  Water.    Srtton. 176 


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"^i  9  1947 

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